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THE 


ROAD-MASTER'S  ASSISTANT 


A  MANUAL   OF  REFERENCE   FOR  ALL   HAVING    TO  DO  WITH 
THE    PERMANENT    WAT  OF 


i          AMERICAN   RAILROADS, 

Containing  the  Best  Results  of  Experience  and  Minute 
Directions   for   Track- Laying,   Ballasting   and 
Keeping  the  Track  in  Good  Repair. 


WILLIAM  S.  tHUNTINGTON. 


Second  Edition. 


NEW  YORK: 

A.  N.   KELLOGG    &    CO.,  72    BROADWAY. 
1872. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1872,  by 

A.  N.  KELLOGG  &  CO., 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


CLAKK  W.  BRYAN  &  CO.,  PRINTERS, 
SPRISGFIELD,  MASS. 


PREFACE. 


THE  object  in  offering  this  little  volume  to  the  rail- 
road public  is  to  correct,  as  far  as  possible,  certain 
erroneous  practices  into  which  track-layers  and  sec- 
tion-men have  fallen,  -which  practices  are  fatal  to  the 
life  of  track  and  rolling  stock. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  "  T  "  rail  in  this  coun- 
try a  certain  method  of  laying  track  was  adopted, 
and,  with  few  exceptions,  has  been  adhered  to  until 
the  present  day,  and  so  with  track  repairs.  It  may 
be  said  that  track-men  "fell  into  a  groove"  thirty 
years  ago,  and  are  still  following  it,  to  the  great  detri- 
ment of  railroad  shareholders  and  of  the  public  at 
.  large. 

/^4        The  enormous  expense  of  track  repairs  and  the 

^    liability  to  accident  may  be  greatly  reduced  by  a  re- 

V     form  in  the  every-day  practice  of  the  track-layer  and 

_  "^section-master ;  and  the  manner  in  which  this  may  be 

*?     accomplished  is  set  forth  in  this  work  as  clearly  and 

••*     briefly  as  possible.     It  would  not  be  a  difficult  matter 

to  fill  a  volume  of  several  times  the  size  of  this  on 

the  subjects  herein  embraced,  but  the  author  believes 


,353973 


that  the  information  here  given  will  be  more  accepta- 
ble in  its  present  form — "  in  a  nut-shell  " — than  if  oc- 
cupying unnecessary  space  for  the  purpose  of  making  a 
big  book.  It  is  not  forgotten  that  several  books  have 
been  published,  bearing  on  the  same  topics ;  but  they 
are  mainly  of  a  technical  nature,  and  not  adapted  to 
the  wants  or  capacities  of  the  average  track-man,  and 
are  of  little  value  to  other  than  professional  engineers. 

The  author  has  undertaken  to  make  this  a  practical 
book  for  practical  men,  and  the  ideas  herein  presented 
are  the  result  of  upward  of  a  quarter  of  a  century's 
experience  and  extended  observation  in  various  ca- 
pacities, on  some  of  the  best  as  well  as  some  of  the 
worst  managed  railroads  in  the  country. 

It  is  not  designed  to  "  upset "  any  well  established 
theory,  nor  is  it  expected  to  introduce  ideas  entirely 
new  to  every  one  who  may  read  these  pages ;  but  it 
is  confidently  hoped  that  the  great  mass  of  track-men 
will  here  find  suggestions  that  will  be  valuable  to 
them,  and  far  more  so  to  their  employers. 

The  author  has,  in  the  course  of  his  experience, 
demonstrated  the  truth  of  all  the  statements  made 
herein  by  actual  experiment  and  practice,  and  may, 
therefore,  commend  them  to  his  readers  as  more  valu- 
able than  conclusions  which  are  only  "jumped  at," 
or  opinions  formed  without  mature  consideration. 

W.  S.  H. 
BYRON,  MICH.,  April,  1871. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I.— TRACK-LAYING. 

Careless  Work 11 

Cross-Ties 12 

Laying  Ties 14 

"  Sighting  in  Ties  " 15' 

Measuring  off  for  Joint-Ties 18 

Laying  Ties  on  Bridges,  Trestle  Work,  etc 20 

The  Selection  of  Ties 21 


CHAPTER  II.— LAYING  THE  RAILS. 

Careless  Handling 23 

Curving  Iron 23 

Laying  Iron  on  Curves 24 

Expansion  of  Iron 25 

Care  in  Replacing  Repaired  Iron 27 

Shims  between  Rails •     ....  27 

Suspension  Joints 29 

Creeping  Track 29 

The  "Plug  Chair" 29 

An  Invention  Wanted  .         .     •     .  .30 


CHAPTER  III.— ABOUT  SPIKES. 

Hasty  and  Careless  Spiking 31 

Spiking  Joints 33 

Preservation  of  the  Gauge 33 


The  Inner  Rail  "running  ahead  "on  Curves  .     .    .    .  33 

Oscillation  of  Carriages 34 

Gauge  Concussion 35 

Spiking  on  Bridges,  Culverts,  etc 37 

Waste  of  Kail-Plates 38 


CHAPTER  IV.— CATTLE-GUARDS,  CULVERTS 
AND  TURN-OUTS. 

Cattle-Guards  often  Mere  Traps 39 

Their  Proper  Construction 40 

Laying  Iron  on   Cattle-Guards,   Culverts  and   Road- 
Crossings.    40 

Laying  Turn-Outs 42 

Locating  Frogs 42 

Double  Turn-Outs 43 

Curving  Iron  among  Frogs 46 

Curving  and  Placing  Guard-Rails 47 

The  "  Hammer  Rule  "  and  the  Correct  Rule   ....  48 

Tie-Rods 49 

A  Few  Words  on  Home  and  Foreign  Roads   ....  50 


CHAPTER  V.— ON  BALLASTING  TRACK. 

Waste  of  Gravel 61 

Saving  Property  before  Ballasting 53 

Good  Ballast 53 

Raising  Track  for  Ballasting 54 

Tamping 54 

Filling  up  and  Dressing  off  Track 55 

Economical  Ballasting 58 

Insufficient  Ballast— Sags 59 

The  Elevation  at  Curves 60 


CHAPTER  VI.— TRACK  REPAIRS. 

Methods  Unchanged  for  a  Quarter  of  a  Century    .    .  62 
Cheap  Section-Masters 63 


Surfacing  Track 65 

Lining  Track 66 

Lining  Track  in  Frosty  Localities 67 

Clearing  out  Ditches,  Culverts,  etc 68 

Dimensions  of  Culverts 70 

"Kinks  "in  Rails 71 

Preserving  True  Gauge 72 

Caring  for  Bridges  and  Trestle  Work 72 

Bridges  Should  be  Planked  for  Foot  Passengers ...  73 


CHAPTER  VII.— DRAWING  SPIKES— SHIMMING. 


Waste  in  Spike-Drawing 

Claw-Bars 

Spike-Drawing  in  Winter 

Shimming  the  Track 

Shims  often  ill-made  and  of  bad  material 
When  Shimming  should  be  done  .  .  . 
When  Shims  should  be  removed  .  .  . 


.  75 

.  76 
.  76 
.  78 
.  79 
.  80 
.  80 
.  82 


The  Manufacture  of  Shims 

Shimming   under    Ties   on   Open   Culverts,    Trestle 

Work,  etc 83 

The  Action  of  Frost 85 

Danger  from  Planks  at  Road-Crossings 85 

Wood-Piles 86 


CHAPTER  VIII.— REPAIRING  SWITCHES, 
FROGS,  ETC. 

Bent  Switch-Rods 87 

Adjusting  the  Throw  of  Switches 87 

Connecting  Rods 88 

Cast-Steel  Plate  and  Rail  Frogs 88 

Fastening  Guard-Rails 89 

Short  Guard-Rails 90 

Useless  Tinkering 91 


Viii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IX.— RENEWING  TIES— SHIFTING 
IRON. 

The  Work  not  so  Simple  as  it  Looks ^92 

Difference  of  Ties 93 

How  Track  is  Affected  by  Changing 93 

Shifting  Iron 95 

Step  Chairs 96 

Spiking  Replaced  Iron 97 

Preserving  the  Gauge 97 

Uncurved  Iron  for  Curves 98 

Unnecessary  Expense  of  Permanent  Way    ....  99 

CHAPTER  X.— SNOW  AND  ICE. 

Snow  Plows 101 

Clearing  the  Flange-ways  of  Snow  and  Ice  ....  104 
Devices  for  Clearing  Flange- ways 105 

CHAPTER  XI.— A  WORD   TO   SUPERINTEND- 
ENTS AND   ROAD-MASTERS. 

The  Choice  of  Road-Masters 106 

What  is  Expected  of  a  Road-Master 107 

Inefficient  but  Ambitious  Road-Masters 108 

Section-Masters 110 

Useless  Tinkering Ill 

CHAPTER  XH.— ON  FIRE  AND  WATER  AS  ENE- 
MIES—ALSO  ON  PRESERVING  FENCES. 

Washing  Away  of  Embankments 112 

Care  of  Road -Bed  in  Freshets 113 

Surface  Ditches 115 

Hand-Car  Practice— Fires 116 

Fires  on  Bridges 116 

The  Preservation  of  Fences     .  .     .  118 


CHAPTER  XIII.-ON  RAILROAD  ACCIDENTS. 

Preventable  and  Non-Preventable  Accidents      .     .    .120 

What  Accidents  are  Unavoidable 122 

Unavoidable  Collisions 123 

Collisions  Caused  by  Carelessness 125 

On  Preventing  Accidents 128 

Defective  Wheels,  Axles,  Rails  and  Switches    .     .     .128 

Draw-bridge  Signals   .  • 131 

False  Economy 132 

"  Eternal  Vigilance  " 132 


APPENDIX. 

Elevation  of  the  Outer  Rail  on  Curves 133 

Degree  of  Curves 135] 

Bending  Rails 136 ' 

Number  of  Rails  per  mile — Weight,  etc 137 

Cross-Ties 138 

Inches  Expressed  in  Decimals  of  a  Foot 138 

Fractions  of  an  Inch  Decimally  Expressed  ....  138 


INDEX 139 


CHAPTER   I. 
TRACK    LAYING. 

CARELESS  WORK— USUAL  DEFECTS  AND  THEIR  CONSEQUEN- 
CES—CHOICE OF  CROSS-TIES;  SHOULD  BE  OF  UNIFORM  SIZE 
— How  TO  LAY  THEM,  AND  How  NOT  TO  LAY  THEM — SIDE 
TIES — "SIGHTING  IN  TIES  "—MEASURING  OFF  FOR  JOINT 
TIES— LAYING  TIES  ON  BRIDGES,  ETC.— THE  USE  OF  SHIMS. 

TRACK  LAYING  is  generally  performed  in  a  careless 
manner,  with  little  or  no  regard  to  wear  and  tear  of 
track  and  rolling  stock  ;  the  main  object  in  view  being 
to  get  over  the  ground  as  fast  as  possible,  so  as  to  put 
the  road  in  operation,  when  all  defects  may  be  reme- 
died. This  might  be  well  enough,  if  the  remedy  was 
sure  to  be  applied  ;  but  this  is  very  seldom  the  case, 
and  track  once  poorly  laid,  is  generally  allowed  to  re- 
main so  until  safety  demands  a  thorough  overhauling, 
which  can  only  be  done  at  great  expense  and  incon- 
venience. Indeed,  there  is  no  remedy  for  some  of  the 
defects  of  poor  track-laying,  after  the  road  is  put  in  op- 
eration. Of  course  the  ballasting  can  be  done,  the 
track  put  in  good  surface  and  line,  the  ditches  and 
water-courses  cleaned  out,  and  the  road  put  in  good 
running  order  for  the  present ;  but  if  the  ties  are  im- 


12  CROSS-TIES. 

properly  laid,  crooked  iron  laid  on  a  straight  line ;  if 
the  iron  is  not  sufficiently  curved  on  curves,  or  is 
allowed  to  run  ahead  on  curves,  the  inner  rail  get- 
ting so  far  ahead  as  to  bring  the  joint-ties  diag- 
onally across  the  track,  there  is  no  remedy  except  to 
tear  up  the  track  and  relay  it.  This  is  too  expensive 
an  operation,  and  is  never  done  until  the  ties. are  so  de- 
cayed, or  the  iron  so  worn,  as  to  require  removal,  which 
operation  must  be  performed  much  sooner  than  would 
be  the  case  if  the  track  was  properly  laid  at  first. 

Cross  -Ties. 

An  important  matter  in  connection  with  track- 
laying,  too  often  overlooked  by  railroad  managers,  is 
the  selection  of  cross-ties.  These  should  be  of  uni- 
form length,  breadth  and  thickness.  If  they  are  not 
so  supplied,  they  should  be  assorted  before  they  are 
laid,  so  that  all  the  ties  in  a  set,  or  a  length  of  iron, 
will  be  of  the  same  size.  If  they  vary  in  length,  the 
rail  on  one  side  of  the  track  gets  an  uneven  support 
and  will  settle  out  of  surface,  while  that  on  the  other 
will  remain  in  good  surface,  making  a  disagreeable 
track  to  run  over.  If  they  vary  in  thickness,  it  causes 
trouble  in  frosty  weather,  as  the  action  of  frost  is  not 
uniform  but  varies  as  the  ties  vary  in  the  depth  they 
enter  the  ballast.  Much  mischief  has  been  done  by 
frost  breaking  away  under  the  thinner  ties  while  it  re- 


CROSS-TIES.  13 

mained  solid  under  the  thicker  ones,  as  trains  were 
passing  over  them.  The  action  of  water  settling  under 
cross-ties,  where  they  vary  in  thickness,  often  occa- 
sions a  serious  disturbance  in  the  surface  of  track,  by 
washing  out  the  gravel  from  under  the  thick  ties, 
while  it  is  not  disturbed  under  the  thin  ones ;  thus 
rendering  it  difficult  to  keep  the  track  in  good  sur- 
face. If  the  ties  vary  in  width,  and  are  laid  the 
same  distance  apart  from  center  to  center,  the  rails 
get  an  uneven  support,  to  the  great  damage  of  track 
and  rolling  stock.  Any  one  standing  by  the  side  of 
such  a  track,  while  a  locomotive  is  passing  slowly, 
will  observe  that  the  drivers  spring  the  rail  most 
where  the  narrow  ties  are.  In  passing  from  a  couple 
of  wide  ties  over  a  few  narrow  ones  placed  adjoining 
them,  the  narrow  ties  settle  into  the  ballast  deeper 
than  the  wide  ones,  and  the  drivers  seem  to  be  run- 
ning down  hill.  On  the  other  hand,  when  passing 
from  the  narrow  to  the  wider  ties  they  appear  as  if 
running  up  hill ;  thus  rising  and  falling  as  the  ties 
are  wide  or  narrow.  If  the  rails  were  made  of  a  ma- 
terial which  would  retain  its  shape  after  they  were 
sprung  out  of  surface  by  a  locomotive,  they  would 
present  an  appearance  similar  to  the  waves  of  the 
ocean  in  a  gentle  breeze.  Running  over  such  a  track 
is  far  more  expensive  than  when  ties  are  of  uniform 
width,  and  laid  equal  distances  apart. 


14  CROSS-TIES. 

With  ties  of  uniform  length,  breadth  and  thickness, 
it  is  possible  to  lay  a  track  that  a  locomotive  will  run 
on  as  smoothly  as  a  ball  on  a  billiard  table,  which  is 
certainly  very  desirable. 

Laying  ties  is  not  an  operation  that  requires 
much  mechanical  skill ;  and  probably  most  track-layers 
would  consider  any  hints  on  the  subject  superfluous. 
Yet  there  are  matters  of  great  importance  connected 
with  the  operation  that  are  frequently  overlooked, 
and  it  is  proposed  to  point  out  here  some  of  the  most 
serious  faults  that  are  committed. 

Track-layers  do  not  generally  take  sufficient  pains 
to  lay  ties  at  right  angles  to  the  rails.  Thus  the 
ends  are  brought  nearer  together  on  one  side  of  the 
track  than  on  the  other,  resembling  the  letter  A.  At 
the  next  space,  perhaps,  the  letter  is  reversed.  This 
gives  a  good  support  to  a  portion  of  the  rail  on  one 
side,  while  the  rail  on  the  opposite  side  has  no  sup- 
port ;  and  as  these  conditions  are  reversed  in  the 
next  space,  a  disagreeable  rocking  motion  is  given 
to  the  trains,  which  occasions  unnecessary  wear  to 
track  and  rolling  stock.  Ties  should  be  laid  at 
right  angles  with  the  rail,  with  a  view  to  giving  the 
rail  a  continuous  uniform  support  through  its  entire 
length. 

Side-ties  (ties  next  the  joint)  should  be  of  equal 
width  and  laid  the  same  distances  from  the  joint,  oth- 


"SIGHTING    IN    TIES."  15 

erwise  the  joint-tie  will  be  likely  to  roll  somewhat 
to  one  side,  and  thus  form  a  "cocked  joint,"  causing 
the  iron  to  wear  rapidly  at  the  joint.  The  truth  of 
this  may  be  seen  by  any  one  who  will  take  a  walk  of  a 
few  miles  on  almost  any  railroad  in  the  country.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  ends  of  rails,  at  all  joints  hav- 
ing side-ties  properly  laid,  will  be  in  good  order ;  while 
those  having  one  side-tie  nearer  than  the  other  to  the 
joint-tie  will  be  battered  and  broomed,  being  subject- 
ed to  a  pounding  from  every  wheel  that  passes.  By 
paying  proper  attention  to  laying  side-ties,  the  iron 
will  last  much  longer  than  when  laid  in  a  careless 
manner,  and  it  would  be  a  great  saving  to  railway 
companies  if  the  managers  would  see  that  more  care 
is  exercised  in  this  respect  than  is  generally  given. 

"Sighting  in  Ties." 

Almost  every  one  has  a  "way  of  his  own"  of  do- 
ing certain  kinds  of  work,  and  every  one  considers  his 
method  the  best.  It  is  the  practice  of  some  engi- 
neers to  set  grade-stakes  20  feet  apart  for  laying  ties. 
This  is  unnecessary  labor  for  the  engineers,  and  more- 
over it  is  inconvenient  for  those  who  lay  the  ties. 
The  men  who  lay  the  leading  ties  must  handle  a 
straight-edge  21  feet  in  length,  which  is  difficult  to 
manage,  especially  in  windy  weather.  It  is  a  slow  and 
tedious  operation  to  place  each  end  of  a  straight-edge 


16  "SIGHTING  IN  TIES." 

on  the  grade-stakes.  A  more  ready  method  of  lay- 
ing  the  "  leading  ties  "  is  to  "  sight  them  in  "  by  the 
use  of  "  target  boards.  "  These  boards  are  shown  in 
the  annexed  cut.  They  are  constructed  by  taking  a 
board  eight  or  ten  inches  in  width,  and  the  length 
of  the  ties  to  be  laid.  Near  one  end  a  leg,  3^  or 
4  feet  in  length,  made  of  a  strip  of  board,  is  fas- 
tened. At  the  same  distance  from  the  other  end  is 
a  clasp  and  thumb-screw.  An  iron  rod  passes 
through  the  clasp  and  is  driven  into  the  ground  far 
enough  to  support  the  board  steadily.  Two  boards 
like  fig.  1  are  required,  and  they  should  be  painted 
white,  with  a  black  stripe  half  an  inch  wide  on  the 
upper  edge. 

With  this  arrangement  it  is  only  necessary  to  set 
one  grade-stake  opposite  each  center-stake,  100  feet 
apart.  Place  the  leg  of  the  target-board  on  the 
grade-stake ;  then  drive  the  rod  into  the  ground 
sufficiently  to  hold  the  board  steadily.  If  on  straight 
line,  level  the  board  and  secure  it  in  place  by  the 
thumb-screw.  If  on  a  curve,  first  level  the  board, 
then  elevate  the  required  distance  by  the  ^  inch,  •§•  or 
inch  marks  on  the  rod.  Place  another  board  like 
this  at  the  next  grade-stake,  and  you  are  now  ready 
to  proceed.  The  target  is  made  by  mortising  a 
standard  into  a  block.  A  cross-piece  at  the  top  of 
the  standard  is  painted  like  the  target  board.  Place 


18  MEASURING    OFF    FOE   JOINT-TIES. 

this  upon  the  tie  after  it  is  in  place.  Of  course  if  the 
top  of  the  target  when  placed  on  the  tie,  coincides 
with  the  two  boards  the  tie  is  right.  A  sprightly  lad 
ten  or  twelve  years  old  can,  after  a  little  practice, 
sight  with  great  accuracy  and  rapidity. 

By  this  process  the  leading  ties  can  be  laid  near 
enough  together  so  that  a  short  straight  edge  may  be 
used  to  lay  the  intermediates.  When  sufficient  lead- 
ing ties  have  been  laid  between  the  target-boards,  the 
rear  board  may  be  moved  ahead,  "jumping  "  the  other 
board  like  playing  checkers.  The  distance  between 
the  leg  and  the  rod  of  the  target-board  should  be 
equal  to  the  gauge  of  the  track.  On  curves  the 
grade-stakes  should  be  set  on  the  inner  side. 

This  method  relieves  the  engineers  of  an  immense 
amount  of  unnecessary  labor,  and  track-layers  who 
have  tried  the  plan  prefer  it  to  any  other. 

Measuring  off  for  Joint-Ties. 

This  should  be  done  with  great  care,  and,  if  nice- 
ly done,  will  not  only  save  much  labor  and  trouble  in 
track-laying,  but  will  tend  greatly  to  prolong  the  life 
of  rails  and  reduce  the  expense  of  track  repairs.  If 
the  iron  "  runs  ahead  "  of  the  marking,  the  joint-tie 
must  be  moved  ahead,  or  the  joint  will  not  be  in  the 
center  of  the  tie  and  will  cause  a  "cocked  joint," 
which  will  expose  the  ends  of  the  rails  to  unneces- 


MEASURING    OFF    FOB   JOINT-TIES.  19 

sary  wear  by  "  pounding.  "  If  the  marking  runs 
ahead  of  the  iron,  it  is  necessary  to  move  the  joint- 
tie  back,  and  in  either  case  it  brings  the  joint-tie  nearer 
to  one  side-tie  than  the  other,  which  is  sure  to  cause  a 
"  cocked  joint, "  by  which  the  rails  will  soon  be  spoiled. 
When  it  is  necessary  to  move  the  joint-tie,  the  side-ties 
should  also  be  moved,  to  bring  them  equal  distances 
from  the  joint.  This  will  not  only  prevent  the  wear  of 
rails  at  the  joint,  but  will  save  much  expense  in  track 
repairs. 

The  ties  should  not  be  laid  far  in  advance  of  the 
rails,  as  it  is  convenient  in  measuring  for  joints  to  go 
back  occasionally  and  measure  from  the  end  of  the 
rails  and  correct  the  measurement,  which  will  obvi- 
ate the  necessity  of  moving  ties  after  being  once 
laid.  The  measuring  pole  or  rod  should  be  as  long 
as  the  target-rail.  The  length  of  shorter  rails  may 
be  marked  on  the  pole.  The  joint-stakes  should  be 
made  square  and  straight.  Set  the  stake  ahead  of 
the  end  of  the  pole  (or  the  marks,  if  for  short  iron,) 
just  the  distance  that  is  allowed  for  expansion,  and  by 
driving  the  stakes  perpendicular  and  firm  the  meas- 
urement will  be  correct.  By  exercising  a  little  care 
to  place  the  stakes  in  line,  the  measuring  will  be  more 
accurate  than  when  driven  zigzag.  In  laying  track 
on  curves  it  is  necessary  to  cut  the  inner  rail  oc- 
casionally to  keep  the  joint  radial  to  the  curve.  In 


20  LAYING    TIES    ON    BRIDGES,   ETC. 

such  cases  the  measuring  pole  must  be  "  set  back,"  as 
much  as  is  taken  off  the  rail.  The  man  in  charge  of 
laying  the  iron  should  keep  watch  and  notify  the 
"  marker,"  when  the  iron  has  run  ahead  far  enough  t» 
need  cutting.  The  marker  can  thus  act  understand- 
ingly. 

Laying  Ties  on  Bridges,  Trestle-Work,  Etc. 

There  are  some  splendid  railroad  bridges  in  this 
country,  built  at  enormous  expense,  which  are  greatly 
injured  because  the  ties  on  them  are  improperly  laid. 
In  many  cases  the  engineer  who  has  charge  of  the 
building  of  bridges  is  miles  away  when  the  track  is 
being  laid,  and  that  work  is  in  charge  of  those  who 
give  little  heed  to  the  manner  in  which  the  ties  are 
placed.  When  cross-ties  are  used  on  bridges,  they 
should  be  laid  by  a  mechanic,  with  great  nicety,  as 
this  is  essential  to  the  life  of  tho  bridge.  In  adzing 
them  down  to  a  uniform  thickness,  great  care  should 
be  taken  that  there  is  not  the  slightest  variation  ;  for, 
although  it  is  usual  to  use  sawed  ties  on  bridges, 
they  will  be  found  to  vary  considerably  in  thickness, 
so  that  every  tie  should  be  carefully  measured  before 
the  iron  is  laid.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  track 
laid  on  bridges  where  the  ties  have  not  been  prop- 
erly fitted,  and  shims  used  to  level  up  with.  The 
shims  are  often  made  of  soft  wood,  in  which  case  they 


LAYING    TIES    ON    BRIDGES,  ETC.  21 

are  worthless,  or  they  work  out  of  place,  thus  leaving 
the  rail  with  only  a  bearing  on  every  third  or  fourth 
tie.  This  should  never  be  allowed,  as  it  causes  great 
strain  and  vibration,  and  injures  the  structure.  Cross- 
ties  should  be  securely  fastened,  so  that  they  cannot 
slip  or  jar  out  of  place.  Frequently  three  or  four 
ties  may  be  found  out  of  place,  and  so  close  as  to 
touch  each  other,  while  the  rail  has  no  support  for 
several  feet.  Of  course  such  things  would  not  be 
looked  for  on  some  of  our  first-class  roads;  but  they 
are  far  too  common  in  this  country,  both  for  the  good 
of  the  railroad  community  and  the  public. 

Every  joint-tie  should  be  adzed  down  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  chair  (when  cast  chairs  are  used),  so  as 
to  bring  the  bottom  of  it  on  a  level  with  the  others. 
When  thick  cast  chairs  are  used,  and  the  tie  is  not  cut 
down,  the  bottom  is  brought  lower  than  the  others, 
giving  water  a  chance  to  settle  under  it,  causing  the 
ballast  to  work  out  from  beneath,  and  so  making  it 
difficult  to  keep  in  surface. 

Managers  of  roads  now  in  course  of  construction  can 
save  thousands  of  dollars  by  exercising  a  little  care  in 
the  selection  of  ties  and  having  them  properly  laid; 
and  on  old  roads  where  decayed  ties  are  being  removed 
or  new  iron  laid,  the  above  hints  may  be  acted  upon 
to  good  advantage.  This  care  has  been  exercised  of 


22  LAYING    TIES    ON    BRIDGES,  ETC. 

late  on  some  of  our  leading  roads,  and  it  is  found  that 
when  ties  are  properly  laid  the  iron  lasts  much  longer, 
the  expense  of  repairs  to  track  and  rolling  stock  is 
much  reduced  and  there  are  fewer  accidents.  Other 
roads  should  go  and  do  likewise. 


CHAPTER  II. 
LAYING   THE   RAILS. 

DAMAGES  BY  ROUGH  HANDLING  —  CURVING  IRON  — LAYING 
IRON  ON  CURVES— COCKED  JOINTS  AND  How  TO  REMEDY 
THEM— EXPANSION  OF  IRON— USUAL  PROVISION  AGAINST 
IT— CAUTION  NECESSARY  IN  REPLACING  REPAIRED  RAILS 
— THE  FOUR-BOLTED  FISH-JOINTS — HOOP  IRON  SHIMS — 
SUSPENSION  JOINTS — CREEPING  TRACK. 

IT  is  somewhat  singular  that  so  expensive  an  article 
does  not  receive  better  treatment.  Much  iron  is  ren- 
dered unfit  for  use  by  rough  handling.  It  is  often  bent 
by  being  carelessly  thrown  from  cars,  and  laid  without 
being  straightened ;  or  it  is  thrown  to  one  side  as  use- 
less, and  afterwards  covered  with  gravel  or  mud,  and 
lost.  A  great  many  thousand  dollars'  worth  of  iron 
is  lost  and  destroyed  by  bad  handling,  every  year, 
throughout  the  country. 

Curving  Iron. 

It  is  customary,  with  most  track-layers,  to  curve 
iron  by  dropping  it  as  it  is  drawn  from  the  iron  cars, 
when  laying  it.  This  is  a  bad  practice,  as  it  is  either 


24       CURVING    IRON — LAYING   IRON    ON    CURVES. 

curved  too  much  or  not  enough;  or,  as  is  generally 
the  case,  it  is  not  curved  at  all,  but  only  gets  an  elbow 
in  the  middle  of  the  rail,  while  from  the  middle  to 
the  ends  it  remains  perfectly  straight.  Sometimes,  on 
slight  curves,  the  iron  is  curved  after  spiking,  by 
throwing  the  curve  into  it  with  lining  bars.  This 
makes  a  very  handsome  track  for  a  short  time ;  but  the 
iron  will  soon  regain  its  former  shape,  and  become 
straight.  Straight  iron  wears  rapidly  on  curves,  and  it 
is  difficult  to  keep  in  line.  Iron  should  never  be  laid 
on  curves  until  it  is  properly  curved  ;  and,  if  no  curv- 
ing machine  is  at  hand,  it  can  be  very  nicely  done 
with  the  old-fashioned  apparatus,  viz.  :  a  chain,  lever 
and  sledge,  a  couple  of  ties,  and  a  fishing-line. 

Laying  Iron  on  Curves. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  inner  rail  on  curves  will 
"run  ahead"  so  as  to  bring  the  joint-tie  diagonally 
across  the  track.  This  has  the  effect  to  throw  the  joint- 
tie  nearer  to  the  side-tie  on  one  side  of  the  track,  and 
farther  on  the  other,  forming  the  letter  A  as  above- 
mentioned,  also  Causing  a  "cocked  joint" — that  is,  the 
side-tie  being  nearer  to  the  end  of  one  rail  than  to  the 
end  of  the  other,  the  end  of  one  rail  is  raised  a  trifle 
above  the  other,  and  soon  becomes  battered  and  spoiled. 
Another  evil  in  allowing  iron  to  run  ahead  is  the  disa- 
greeable rocking  motion  it  imparts  to  rolling  stock, 


EXPANSION    OP    IRON.  25 

especially  if  the  track  is  not  in  good  surface.  When 
track  is  out  of  surface,  the  joints  are  sure  to  be  low ; 
and  the  wheels  pitching  into  a  joint  on  one  side,  a  little 
before  reaching  the  opposite  joint,  cause  a  twitching 
and  jerking  from  side  to  side,  which  is  very  disagree- 
able and  destructive. 

The  inner  rail  should  be  cut  frequently,  so  as  to  keep 
the  joints  as  square  as  possible.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
cut  off  three  inches  as  often  as  the  iron  gets  ahead  two 
inches.  This  will  keep  the  joints  all  right.  It  is  no 
uncommon  thing  on  some  roads  to  find  iron  run  ahead 
fifteen  to  twenty  inches,  and  sometimes  two  feet.  This 
is  a  bad  practice,  and  should  be  avoided. 

Expansion  of  Iron. 

Many  serious  accidents  are  caused  in  this  country  in 
the  summer  months  by  the  expansion  of  iron.  These 
accidents  are  not  confined  to  what  are  called  "  one-horse 
roads,"  but  frequently  occur  on  some  of  the  best-man- 
aged roads  in  the  country.  In  the  month  of  July,  1867, 
eight  serious  accidents  occurred  in  one  day,  all  caused 
by  expansion  of  track  iron  !  Several  lives  were  lost, 
and  the  damage  amounted  to  an  enormous  sum.  Prob- 
ably there  are  few  more  fruitful  sources  of  accident 
than  expansion,  although  it  is  fair  to  presume  that 
there  is  not  a  track-layer  or  a  section-master  in  the 
country  unacquainted  with  this  property  of  iron.  It  is 


26  EXPANSION   OF    IRON. 

safe  to  say  that,  as  a  cause  of  disaster,  it  ranks  next  to 
collisions  and  misplaced  switches.  Accidents  from  ex- 
pansion are  always  serious  ones,  usually  resulting  in  a 
general  smash-up,  with  loss  of  life.  Yet  these  acci- 
dents may  be  prevented  by  allowing  for  expansion, 
especially  when  rails  are  laid  in  cold  weather.  When 
cast  chairs  are  used,  it  is  customary  to  drive  the  rails  to 
place  with  a  sledge,  and  a  chip  of  wood,  or  little  sliver, 
is  placed  between  the  ends  of  the  rails,  to  keep  them 
open  a  little,  for  expansion.  This  is  of  no  use,  for  a 
blow  of  the  sledge  will  smash  the  chip,  or  compress  it 
to  the  thickness  of  a  sheet  of  paper;  while  in  laying 
twenty-one  feet  iron  in  winter,  a  space  of  at  least  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  should  be  left  at  each  joint,  and,  if 
very  cold,  one-fourth  of  an  inch  is  not  too  much.  The 
length  of  iron  and  temperature  of  the  weather  should 
always  be  taken  into  consideration.  Probably  one 
cause  of  track-layers  neglecting  to  make  provision  for 
expansion  lies  in  the  fact  that,  years  ago,  the  iron  was 
only  about  half  the  length  of  that  now  in  use,  and  in 
laying  the  long  iron  now,  they  only  make  the  same 
provision  that  they  did  for  short  iron.  It  is  said  that 
a  continuous  line  of  track,  five  hundred  miles  in 
length,  will  expand  one-fourth  of  a  mile.  Railroad 
managers  would  do  well  to  see  that  all  track-men  in 
their  employ  are  posted  in  this  matter  ;  and,  as  differ- 
ent rules  are  needed  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 


EXPANSION    0V    IRON.  27 

try,  the  subject  should  be  attended  to  by  engineers, 
each  in  his  own  locality. 

Care  is  also  needed  in  replacing  iron  that  has  been 
repaired.  In  welding  the  ends  of  battered  rails,  they 
are  frequently  left  a  trifle  longer  than  they  were  be- 
fore, and  when  they  are  replaced  in  the  track  they 
take  up  all  the  space,  leaving  no  room  for  expansion. 
It  is  a  common  practice  for  repair-men,  when  replac- 
ing mended  iron,  to  squeeze  it  in  perfectly  tight.  In 
such  cases  they  are  sure  to  have  trouble  in  hot  weath- 
er. Men  who  have  charge  of  the  repairing  of  rails 
should  have  a  gauge,  and  never  allow  a  rail  to  leave 
the  shop  the  merest  trifle  longer  than  when  it  came 
in,  except  for  a  particular  purpose. 

Track-layers  using  the  four-bolted  fish-joint  usually 
make  no  allowance  for  expansion,  as  that  is  supposed 
to  have  been  provided  for  at  the  rolling-mill,  by 
elongating  the  bolt-hole  both  in  the  rail  and  fish-bar. 
But  it  is  unsafe  to  rely  wholly  on  this  provision,  as 
the  holes  in  the  fish-bars  and  rails  are  so  placed  in 
relation  to  each  other  as  to  allow  the  rails  to  come  in 
contact  unless  prevented  by  placing  a  shim  between 
them.  The  iron  car  should  always  be  provided  with 
a  shim-box  on  each  side,  for  that  purpose.  The  boxes 
should  be  divided  into  various  compartments  to  hold 
shims  of  various  thicknesses,  not  only  to  be  used  at 
different  seasons  of  the  year,  but  at  different  times 


28  EXPANSION    OF    IRON. 

of  the  day.  The  thicker  ones  should  be  used  in  the 
morning  when  it  is  cool,  and  at  the  close  of  the  day, 
and  thinner  ones  in  the  heat  of  the  day.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  take  hoop  or  band  iron,  1  inch  or  1^  inches 
wide,  and  of  various  thicknesses,  and  cut  into  lengths 
of  about  three  inches ;  then  bend  the  pieces  in  the 
middle  at  right  angles,  so  that  they  will  form  two 
sides  of  a  square ;  select  the  proper  thickness,  and 
use  them  by  placing  one  end  between  the  rails  and 
the  other  on  the  top  of  one  rail  at  the  joint.  After 
the  joint  has  been  bolted  and  spiked,  the  shims  can  be 
easily  removed  for  future  use.  This  is  an  import- 
ant matter,  and  should  receive  more  attention  than  is 
generally  given  to  it. 

Trouble  is  sometimes  experienced  on  roads  where  it 
would  seem  that  ample  provision  had  been  made  for 
expansion.  This  is  sometimes  caused  by  sand,  gravel, 
particles  of  iron,  etc.,  getting  into  the  space  between 
the  rails  at  the  joint,  where  the  chair  prevents  its 
working  out.  There  is  no  remedy  for  this  except  to 
exercise  care  in  ballasting,  and  to  clean  out  the  joints 
as  well  as  possible  after  dressing  off  the  track.  Safe 
expansion  is  also  hindered  by  bolting  the  fish-bars 
so  tight  as  to  prevent  the  slip  of  the  rail,  causing  it 
to  buckle,  which  throws  it  out  of  line.  This  is 
the  most  serious,  if  not  the  only  objection  to  the  fish- 
bar  joint. 


SUSPENSION    JOINTS CREEPING    TRACK.  29 

"  Suspension  joints,  "  have  been  used  considerably  on 
some  roads,  and  thus  far  have  given  good  satisfaction. 
With  these  joints  no  chair  is  used,  and  the  joint  is 
made  by  placing  two  broad-faced  ties  near  together, 
each  tie  being  near  the  end  of  the  rail,  leaving  about 
three  inches,  or  perhaps  more,  of  the  ends  of  each 
rail  with  no  support  except  the  fish-bars.  This  leaves 
the  joint  suspended  between  two  ties,  six  or  eight 
inches  apart,  and  all  sand,  gravel,  etc.,  is  allowed  to 
fall  through,  leaving  the  joint  always  free. 

Creeping  Track. 

Much  damage  has  been  done  by  expansion,  from 
improper  treatment  of  "  creeping  track.  "  The  creep- 
ing of  track  occurs  most  frequently  on  roads  with 
heavy  traffic,  and  where  grades  are  heavy  and  change 
often.  The  rails  in  creeping  have  a  tendency  to 
move  towards  the  foot  of  the  grade,  bringing  the 
ends  of  all  the  rails  on  the  incline  in  contact,  while  at 
the  summit  there  is  an  open  space  of  several 
inches.  This  space  is  sometimes  filled  with  a  hard- 
wood plug,  or  block,  driven  in  tightly  to  prevent  its 
working  out.  On  some  roads  a  "  plug-chair  "  is  used 
in  place  of  the  block.  These  chairs  are  of  the  ordi- 
nary form  of  cast  chairs,  with  a  tongue  in  the  middle 
of  the  rail-seat,  the  tongue  being  in  the  form  of  a 
cross-section  of  the  rail.  The  tongue,  or  plug,  is 


30  CREEPING  TRACK. 

cast  with  the  chair,  and  chairs  are  cast  having  the 
plug  of  various  thicknesses,  varying  from  one  to 
three  or  four  inches,  to  fill  a  space  of  any  width. 
Of  course  these  chairs  prevent  the  brooming  of  iron 
at  the  open  spaces,  and  are  also  a  great  relief  to  roll- 
ing stock  ;  but  they  prevent  expansion,  and  their  use 
should  be  abandoned.  Fish-bars  prevent  creeping 
in  a  great  measure,  but  there  are  thousands  of  miles  of 
road  in  the  country  still  using  the  old  style  of  chairs, 
and  the  railroad  community  is  greatly  in  need  of  some 
effective  contrivance  for  keeping  rails  in  their  places, 
longitudinally.  The  inventor  who  will  produce  it 
will,  no  doubt,  be  well  rewarded. 


CHAPTER  III. 

ABOT7T      SPIKES. 

WASTEFUL  HANDLING— DRIVING  SPIKES— HOT?  THEY  ABE 
SPOILED— THE  RIGHT  METHOD— THE  GAUGE  :  ITS  MISUSE 
— OSCILLATION  OF  RAILROAD  CARRIAGES  :  BAD  SPIKING 
ONE  CAUSE  — OTHER  CAUSES  — SPIKING  ON  BRIDGES- 
WASTE  OF  RAIL-PLATES. 

THE  driving  of  spikes  is  an  operation  which  is 
usually  performed  in  a  slovenly  manner,  and  a  great 
deal  of  money  is  wasted  in  consequence.  Kegs  of 
spikes  are  thrown  from  the  car  into  ditches,  culverts, 
cattle-guards,  etc.,  the  kegs  are  broken  open  and  a 
portion  of  their  contents  are  lost  in  the  mud  or  covered 
with  gravel,  and  never  seen  again,  unless,  acci- 
dentally, they  are  dug  up,  years  afterwards,  by  re- 
pair men.  If  a  little  more  care  was  exercised  in  this 
respect  it  would  be  well,  and  not  only  with  regard 
to  spikes,  but  with  bolts,  nuts,  washers,  chairs,  fish- 
bars,  etc.,  which  frequently  share  the  same  fate.  But 
it  is  the  manner  of  driving  spikes  that  chiefly  needs 
improving,  and  it  may  be  changed  greatly  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  all  concerned. 


32  SPIKING. 

Spiking,  like  all  work  connected  with  track-laying, 
is  usually  done  with  a  riish,  and,  consequently,  poor- 
ly done.  The  spikes  are  often  driven  under  the  rail ; 
that  is,  they  are  set  leaning,  so  that  the  point  either 
goes  with  a  slant,  under  the  rail,  or,  in  the  other  di- 
rection, from  it.  It  is  wrong  in  either  case,  as  the 
spike  can  never  afterward  be  drawn  for  track  repairs 
without  bending  it  so  as  to  render  it  unfit  for  future 
use ;  for  an  attempt  to  straighten  it  will  break  it. 
Spikes  should  be  driven  as  nearly  perpendicular  as 
possible.  Tall  spikers  usually  set  the  spike  leaning 
from  them ;  probably  for  convenience  of  driving. 
The  practice  is  a  bad  one,  as  it  brings  the  head  of 
the  spike  down  on  the  rail  edgewise,  which  weakens 
it ;  and,  moreover,  the  spike  is  in  a  worse  position  for 
drawing  than  when  driven  in  the  other  direction 
above  mentioned.  In  drawing  a  spike  driven  with 
the  top  leaning  from  the  spiker,  the  head  is  almost 
sure  to  break  off;  or,  if  it  does  not,  it  will  be  bent  to 
one  side,  so  as  to  render  it  entirely  worthless.  For 
proof  of  this,  notice  the  kegs  and  barrels  full  of  bent 
and  broken  spikes,  and  the  loose  piles  of  the  same  arti- 
cle around  every  car-house,  shop  or  depot,  or  in  the 
scrap-house,  to  say  nothing  of  the  great  numbers  of 
them  that  are  lost  in  the  gravel.  Most  of  these  spikes 
might  have  been  used  again  if  they  had  been  properly 
driven.  Thousands  of  tons  of  spikes  are  destroyed 


SPIKING.  33 

in  this  way,  and  they  represent  an  enormous  sum  of 
money. 

Spiking  joints  is  often  carelessly  done,  although 
with  some  kinds  of  chairs  now  in  use,  much  care  is 
necessary  to  secure  a  true  joint,  so  ag  not  to  subject 
the  ends  of  the  rails  to  pounding  and  battering,  which 
soon  renders  them  unfit  for  use. 

Many  heads  are  broken  off  the  spikes,  when  driv- 
ing them  in  a  hurry,  by  striking  the  last  blow  too 
forcibly.  When  the  spike  is  nearly  driven  home,  a 
light  blow  should  be  given,  so  as  just  to  bring  the 
head  to  the  rail  without  cracking  or  straining  it.  In 
frosty  weather  bushels  of  spike-heads  may  be  picked 
up  on  some  roads,  which  have  been  needlessly  broken 
by  carelessness  in  striking.  In  spiking  the  gauge- 
side,  care  should  be  taken  to  place  the  gauge  at  right 
angles  with  the  rail.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
track  to  vary  in  width  from  ^  to  |  of  an  inch,  and 
sometimes  even  more.  One  cause  of  this  variation 
lies  in  not  placing  the  gauge  properly.  On  straight 
lines  it  is  not  difficult  to  get  a  true  gauge  if  ordinary 
pains  are  taken ;  but  on  curves  and  frogs,  etc. ,  it 
requires  considerable  care  to  place  the  gauge  properly, 
as  the  eye  is  liable  to  be  misled  by  surrounding  ob- 
jects. But  the  greatest  difficulty  ip  this  respect  is 
generally  encountered  on  curves,  by  reason  of  the 
inner  rail  "running  ahead,"  as  before  mentioned. 


34  SPIKING. 

Spikers  are  in  the  habit  of  placing  the  gauge  at  the 
joint  on  both  sides  of  the  track ;  and  when  one  joint 
is  fifteen  or  twenty  inches  in  advance  of  that  on  the 
opposite  side  it  has  the  effect  to  alter  the  width  of  the 
track  very  much.  This  variation  in  the  width  of 
track  is  a  serious  evil,  which  may,  in  some  measure, 
be  remedied  by  proper  care  in  spiking  the  gauge- 
side.  There  are  other  causes  of  the  evil  above  men- 
tioned, which,  together,  have  the  effect  to  make  this  va- 
riation far  greater  than  is  generally  supposed.  The 
gauge  is  sprung  by  driving  the  outside  spike  under  the 
rail,  so  as  to  draw  the  rail  in;  or,  perhaps,  the  inner 
spike  is  started  first,  which  draws  the  rail  out  a  trifle  too 
much  ;  and,  after  the  spikes  are  once  driven,  it  is  left 
as  it  is,  right  or  wrong,  not  being  considered  of  any 
importance,  as  it  is  but  a  trifle  too  wide  or  narrow,  as 
the  case  may  be.  The  oscillation  of  railroad  carriages 
is,  in  a  measure,  due  to  variation  in  gauge.  The 
question  "  why  do  railroad  carriages  oscillate  ?  "  has 
lately  been  discussed  in  the  scientific  and  mechanical 
papers,  and  has  been  ascribed  by  some,  who  have 
given  the  matter  considerable  attention,  to  the  bevel 
of  car  wheels.  There  is  no  doubt  that  conical  wheels 
are,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  cause  of  oscillation  of 
cars  when  running  on  a  track  in  good  line,  and  with 
a  true  and  uniform  gauge.  In  the  discussion  here 
alluded  to,  the  oscillation  of  railroad  carriages  is  des- 


SPIKING.  35 

cribed  as  something  extremely  disagreeable,  and  with 
a  good  deal  of  truth.  There  are,  however,  a  few 
roads  in  the  country  where  carriages  are  compara- 
tively free  from  this  nuisance.  It  is  customary  to 
allow  one  inch  for  play  between  the  flange  of  the 
wheel  and  the  rail.  This  is  necessary,  for  obvious 
reasons,  and  with  this  inch  for  play  it  is  impossible 
to  entirely  prevent  oscillation.  There  is,  however, 
nothing  particularly  damaging  from  this  cause  to  track 
or  rolling  stock,  when  track  is  laid  to  a  true  gauge, 
while  a  gentle,  regular,  swinging  motion  of  a  passen- 


It  is  the  sudden  yanking  and  twitching  from  side  to 
side  that  nervous  people  so  dislike,  which  tends  to 
the  rapid  wear  of  track  and  rolling  stock,  and  is  not 
unfrequently  the  cause  of  accidents. 

As  the  rail  is  a  guide  to  the  wheels,  the  line-side 
may  be  in  perfect  condition ;  yet,  if  the  gauge-side 
varies,  it  will  be  seen  to  present  a  snaky  appearance, 
full  of  kinks,  and,  as  the  flange  of  the  wheel  is  as 
likely  to  follow  the  gauge-side  as  the  other,  the  disa- 
greeable oscillations  will  still  occur.  If  track  is  |-  or  f 
of  an  inch  too  wide,  then,  of  course,  the  trucks  have 
an  excessive  side-motion,  which  produces  what  is 
called  "gauge  concussion."  Another  cause  of  con- 
cussion and  oscillation  may  be  found  in  the  surface  of 
track,  even  when  the  gauge  is  tolerably  correct.  It  is 


36  SPIKNQ. 

a  fact  not  generally  known,  that  a  locomotive  or  car 
wheel  will  generally  follow  the  highest  rail  on  straight 
line,  when  one  side  of  the  track  has  settled  more  than 
another.  For  instance,  if  a  rail,  or  the  length  of 
several  rails,  on  the  right  side  of  the  track  has  settled 
so  as  to  be  lower  than  that  on  the  left,  the  flange  on 
the  wheel  will  follow  the  left  side ;  but  suppose  this 
condition  of  the  track  to  be  reversed  for  a  few  lengths 
of  iron  beyond,  then  the  flange  will  follow  the  right 
rail,  and  so  on,  continually  changing  from  side  to 
side,  causing  both  oscillation  and  concussion.  These 
difficulties  are  not  so  serious  on  curves  as  on  straight 
line,  unless  the  track  is  out  of  line,  and  in  that  case 
they  are  far  more  disagreeable  on  curves. 

There  is  but  little  track  in  this  country  with  straight 
line  perfectly  level,  for  various  reasons  above  men- 
tioned, viz:  improperly  selected  sleepers,  improper 
manner  of  laying  them,  etc.,  etc.  The  track  settling 
out  of  surface,  and  the  incline  of  the  ties  (the  cross 
section  of  the  track)  continually  changing  from  side 
to  side,  the  trains  which  pass  over  such  track  afc 
high  velocities  (the  flanges  of  wheels  striving  to  fol- 
low the  higher  rails),  are,  in  consequence,  subjected 
to  sudden  and  powerful  lateral  motion.  This  motion, 
on  track  kept  in  good  repair,  is  not  always  productive 
of  any  serious  evils ;  ^but,  as  before  said,  it  greatly 
increases  the  wear  of  rails  and  rolling  stock. 


SPIKING    ON    BKIDGES,    CULVERTS,    ETC.  37 

Spiking  on  Bridges,  Culverts,  Etc. 

A  great  deal  of  valuable  timber  is  destroyed  and 
track  rendered  unsafe,  on  bridges,  culverts,  etc.,  by 
using  common  spikes,  which  act  as  so  many  wedges 
to  split  the  stringers  or  rail-plates.  When  the  track- 
layer is  not  furnished  with  bridge-spikes,  he  should 
provide  them  himself,  by  haying  the  blacksmith 
sharpen  a  sufficient  quantity  of  common  spikes  so 
as  to  reverse  the  points.  This  will  prevent  the 
splitting  of  rail-plates,  or  checking  them,  which  lets 
in  water,  causing  them  soon  to  decay.  -There  are 
many  bridges,  the  stringers  of  which  are  so  decayed 
that  the  spikes  can  be  pulled  out  with  the  fingers. 
The  main  body  of  the  timber  may  be  perfectly  sound, 
while  a  line  along  the  base  of  the  rail,  on  either  side, 
and  under  the  rail,  may  be  so  far  decayed  that  the 
spikes  will  work  out  by  the  jar  of  passing  trains. 
On  some  roads  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  track-men 
picking  up  the  spikes  and  driving  them  in  a  new 
place ;  or,  if  this  has  been  done  so  many  times  that 
there  is  no  new  place,  they  make  one  by  plugging 
a  bole,  or  filling  it  with  sand,  in  the  soundest  place 
they  can  find. 

Thousand  of  rail-plates  are  now  lying  by  the  road- 
side, rotting,  which  might  safely  have  done  duty  for 
years  longer  had  they  received  proper  treatment. 


353973 


38  SPIKING    ON    BRIDGES,    CULVERTS,    ETC. 

Such  timber  as  is  used  for  this  purpose -is  expensive, 
and  no  railroad  company  can  well  afford  such  wanton 
destruction  of  property.  Of  course  these  timbers 
should  not  remain  in  the  track  one  minute  after  they 
become  unsafe ;  but,  with  proper  usage,  they  will  do 
service  much  longer  than  with  such  usage  as  they  too 
often  receive. 

Rail-plates  should  be  securely  fastened  to  prevent 
spreading.  This  is  often  neglected,  and  the  neglect 
might  possibly  be  the  cause  of  a  first-class  smash-up ; 
in  which  case,  if  a  broken  wheel,  or  a  bent  axle, 
were  found  among  the  wreck,  it  would  sound  better 
to  charge  the  consequences  to  that. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CATTLE-GUARDS,  CULVERTS  AND  TURN-OUTS. 

CATTLE-GUARDS  OFTEN  MERE  TKAPB— THEIR  PROPER  CON- 
STRUCTION— LAYING  IRON  OVER  CATTLE-GUARDS,  CUL- 
VERTS AND  ROAD-CROSSINGS— LAYING  TURN-OUTS — LO- 
CATING FROGS — CURVING  IRON  GUARD  BAILS — MEASUR- 
ING DISTANCES  BY  THE  HAMMER— ADJUSTMENT  OF  GUARD 
RAILS— TIE-RODS— A  FEW  WORDS  ON  HOME  AND  FOREIGN 
ROADS. 

CATTLE-GUARDS  are  sometimes  constructed  by  dig- 
ging a  narrow,  shallow  pit,  and  covering  it  with  slats. 
Perhaps  no  more  ingenious  device  could  be  employed, 
if  it  were  desired  to  kill  or  maim  every  animal  seen 
at  a  road  crossing.  As  a  trap,  it  is  perfect ;  but  as  a 
guard,  entirely  worthless.  The  frightened  animal 
fancies  he  sees  a  safe  way  of  escape,  becomes  en- 
tangled in  the  slats,  and  is  held  until  crushed  by  the 
train,  which  is  not  unfrequently  thrown  from  the 
track,  and  more  or  less  damaged.  Many  railroad 
companies  have  frequently  been  brought  to  grief  by 
this  sort  of  trap,  and  yet  they  continue  their  use. 
The  most  effective  cattle-guard  is  a  deep  pit  left 


40      CATTLE-GUARDS,  CULVERTS,  AND    TURN-OUTS. 

entirely  open,  without  even  cross-sleepers,  as  they 
make  a  trap  similar  to  slats.  These  pits  should  be 
strongly  walled  up,  either  with  masonry  or  timber, 
(the  former  is  preferable,  but  it  is  difficult  to  obtain 
material  in  some  sections,)  and  the  track  laid  on 
stringers  in  a  substantial  manner ;  not  cobbled  up  on 
ties  or  fence-posts,  as  is  frequently  the  case.  Noth- 
ing gives  our  railroads  a  more  poverty-stricken,  slov- 
enly appearance,  than  a  shabby  and  unsafe  manner 
of  building  cattle-guards  and  culverts. 

In  laying  iron  on  cattle-guards,  open  culverts,  etc., 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  joints  do  not  come  on 
the  end  of  the  stringer,  outside  the  face  of  the  wall 
or  abutment.  If  the  joint  is  near  the  end  of  the 
stringer,  it  is  likely  to  injure  the  masonry  by  rocking 
when  trains  are  passing.  It  is  far  preferable,  there- 
fore, to  bring  the  joint  near  the  middle  of  the  timber. 
This  can  be  easily  arranged  by  laying  a  few  lengths 
of  short  iron  just  before  reaching  the  culvert  or  cat- 
tle-guard ;  or,  if  there  is  no  short  iron  at  hand,  it  is 
better  to  cut  a  length  for  that  purpose,  as  the  pieces 
need  not  be  wasted ;  they  will  be  wanted  for  guard- 
rails or  something  else  of  the  kind.  The  same  care 
should  be  exercised  in  regard  to  road  crossings,  ex- 
cept that  the  joints  should  be  brought  outside  the 
planking.  This  cannot  always  be  done,  owing  to 
the  length  of  track  that  must  be  planked ;  but  there 


CATTLE-GUARDS,  CULVEKTS,  AND  TURN-OUTS.   41 

are  many  crossings  that  may  be  laid  with  no  track- 
joint  in  the  planking ;  and  this  can  easily  be  done  by 
the  track-layer,  while  it  will  save  a  great  deal  of 
trouble  to  the  section-master,  and  expense  to  the 
company.  The  principal  objection  to  a  joint  in  a  road 
crossing,  where  it  is  covered  with  plank,  is,  that  it  is 
frequently  necessary  to  disturb  the  crossing  for  track 
repairs ;  and  to  do  this  the  planking  must  be  taken 
up.  This  often  results  in  the  splitting  of  the  planks, 
so  that  new  ones  must  be  furnished,  or  the  crossing 
is  not  left  in  a  safe  condition.  Besides,  it  often  hap- 
pens that  frost  remains  under  the  planks,  in  which 
case  it  requires  a  vast  amount  of  hard  labor  with  the 
pick  to  accomplish  the  necessary  repairs,  when,  but 
for  the  joint  being  in  the  crossing,  the  repairs  would 
not  be  needed.  The  reason  is  this :  the  joint-tie  is 
more  likely  to  settle  than  any  other  part,  and  water 
will  remain  a  long  time  under  the  crossing  after  it 
has  entirely  left  other  portions  of  the  track ;  so  that 
the  joint  in  the  crossing  needs  frequent  raising  to 
keep  it  in  surface,  while  if  it  was  outside  the  plank- 
ing it  would  be  easily  accessible  for  repairs  when 
needed.  Every  section-master  has  experienced  more 
or  less  trouble  with  joints  in  road  crossings ;  and,  as 
this  trouble  is  costly,  it  would  be  well  for  those  in 
charge  of  track-laying  to  give  it  special  attention. 


42  LAYING    TURN-OUTS. 

Laying  Turn-Outs. 

It  requires  considerable  skill  and  judgment  to  lay 
a  good  turn-out.  There  are  many  track-layers  of 
great  experience  who  can  hardly  be  persuaded  to 
undertake  the  job  in  some  cases,  while  others,  of  lim- 
ited experience,  will  readily  undertake  the  most 
difficult  job  in  that  line.  The  latter  class. of  men 
eventually  make  the  best  track-layers  ;  but  railroad 


in  consequence  of  giving  the  work  to  men  imperfectly 
acquainted  with  its  difficulties. 

Engineers  have  published  books  giving  instructions 
for  placing  frogs,  staking  out  work,  etc.,  containing 
much  valuable  information  on  the  subject ;  but  as  it 
is  difficult,  and  frequently  impossible,  to  follow  strictly 
any  given  rules  in  laying  turn-outs,  the  track-layer  is 
forced  to  rely  mainly  on  his  own  judgment  and  experi- 
ence. The  principal  difficulties  encountered  by  track- 
layers of  limited  experience,  are  :  in  getting  the  frogs 
the  proper  distance  from  the  switch,  and  the  right 
distance  apart  when  more  than  one  frog  is  to  be  laid. 

In  placing  a  frog,  the  track-layer  wants  to  know 
how  far  from  the  heel  of  the  switch-rail  to  place  the 
point  of  the  frog.  This  distance  depends  upon  the 
gauge,  the  angle  of  the  frog  and  the  "  throw  "  of  the 
switch-rail.  Frogs  are  usually  made  six  inches  across 


LAYING    TDKN-OUTS. 


the  head,  and  with  three  inches  of  opening  at  the 
mouth.  With  these  dimensions,  the  following  table 
will  give  the  distances  in  feet  and  decimals  from  the 
"  toe,"  or  "head  "  of  the  switch  to  the  point  of  the 
frog — the  throw  of  the  switch  being  five  inches;  gauge, 
4  feet  8  inches : 


Distance  from  toe  of  Switch  to  point  of  Frog, 
Switch-Rail  in  feet  being- 

length  of 

12. 

14.         16. 

18. 

20. 

22. 

3 

29.1 

29.7       30.1 

30.4 

30.7 

30.9 

&/4- 

33.3 

34.0       34.5 

35.0 

35.3 

35.6 

4    .     . 

37.3 

38.2       38.8 

39.4 

39.8 

40.2 

4/<2. 

41.1 

42.2       43.0 

43.7 

44.3 

44.7 

6    .     . 

44.8 

46.1       47.1 

47.9 

48.5 

49.1 

5^2. 

48.3 

49.0       61.0 

51.9 

52.7 

53.2 

6     .    . 

61.7 

63.1       54.8 

65.9 

66.8 

57.6 

6^9. 

65.0 

56.9       58.5 

59.8 

60.8 

-61.7 

7     .  .  '. 

58.1 

60.3       62.1 

63.4 

64.7 

65.7 

1%.  .  . 

61.2 

63.6       65.6 

67.2 

68.6 

69.6 

When  a  double  turn-out  is  to  be  laid  from  the  main 
track,  on  a  straight  line,  one  to  each  side  of  the  main 
track,  it  is  not  a  difficult  affair,  provided  the  frogs  are 
of  the  right  size  and  length  in  relation  to  each  other. 
Of  course  the  two  long  frogs  should  be  of  equal  length 
and  placed  opposite  each  other  in  the  main  track. 
When  these  two  frogs  have  been  put  in  place,  it  is 
easy  to  ascertain  the  proper  location  of  the  short  or 
center  frog  in  this  way  :  Extend  a  line  (a  good  fishing- 
line  is  the  thing)  from  the  turn-out  end  side  of  each 
of  the  long  frogs  to  the  head  of  the  switch-rails ;  then 


44  LAYING    TUKN-OUTS. 

drive  a  spike  or  stake  in  the  place  to  be  occupied  by 
the  gauge-sides,  (inner  side)  of  the  switch-rail,  when 
thrown  on  the  turn-out ;  now  curve  the  line  by  setting 
spikes  or  stakes,  so  as  to  give  it  a  true  curve,  and  to 
afford  an  easy  passage  through  the  frog.  Perform  the 
same  operation  with  the  other  side,  and  the  point  of 
intersection  of  the  two  lines  will  be  the  proper  place 
for  the  point  of  the  center  frog.  It  is  well  to  place  the 
center  frog  nicely  in  the  position  indicated  by  the  cross- 
ing of  the  line ;  then  move  it  slightly,  say  ^  or  f  of  an 
inch  toward  the  long  frogs.  It  will  otherwise  be  dif- 
ficult to  line  both  turn-outs  so  that  the  point  of  the 
center  frog  will  not  be  too  prominent  on  one  or  other 
of  the  side-tracks,  for  then  the  flanges  of  wheels  would 
probably  hit  the  point  and  cause  mischief;  while  re- 
moving it  slightly  toward  the  long  frogs  will  insure  a 
free  passage  of  flanges  on  both  tracks. 

The  above  hints  are  on  the  supposition  that  the  main 
track  has  been  laid  previous  to  commencing  to  lay  the 
turn-outs.  When  the  main  track  and  turn-outs  are  all 
to  be  laid  at  once,  lines  may  be  drawn  to  represent  the 
rails  of  the  main  track ;  then  proceed  as  above.  More 
care  is  necessary  in  placing  cast  frogs  than  rail  frogs, 
as  the  latter  can  be  made  to  yield  somewhat  in  lining 
up,  so  as  to  conform  to  the  different  tracks ;  while  the 
cast  frogs  require  to  be  very  nicely  adjusted  at  first, 
or  they  are  sure  to  cause  trouble  in  lining. 


LAYING    TURN-OUTS.  45 

It  is  frequently  necessary  for  two  turn-outs  to  leave 
the  main  track  from  the  same  side  and  from  the  same 
switch,  and  sometimes  another  from  the  opposite  side, 
from  the  same  switch.  It  will  require  five  frogs  to  do 
this.  The  first  thing  in  marking  out  the  work  is  to  de- 
termine the  location  of  the  switch,  and  also  that  of 
the  frogs  to  be  placed  in  the  main  track.  The  location 
of  the  intermediate  frogs  can  then  be  ascertained  by 
drawing  lines  to  represent  the  rails  in  each  of  the  turn- 
outs. It  requires  a  practiced  eye  to  draw  these  lines 
nicely ;  and  this  is  the  most  difficult  operation  con- 
nected with  laying  turn-outs.  Printed  rules  and  in- 
structions are  of  little  use  to  the  track-layer  in  per- 
forming this  operation.  He  must  rely  mainly  on  his 
own  judgment  and  experience  for  success  in  the  un- 
dertaking. This  is  obvious,  from  the  fact  that  there  is 
often  a  lack  of  room,  especially  at  stations  in  large 
towns,  or  where  companies  are  obliged  to  make  use  of 
every  inch  of  ground  in  their  possession,  making  it 
necessary  to  crowd  a  great  deal  of  track  into  a  small 
space,  at  variance  with  ordinary  rules.  Besides,  at 
some  points  the  turn-outs  leave  the  main  track  on  its 
straight  line,  while  at  other  points  there  is  a  slight  curve, 
and  at  others  again,  a  sharp  curve ;  and  sometimes 
the  turn-out  leaves  the  main  track  from  the  inside  of 
the  curve,  and  in  other  cases  from  the  outside.  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  the  "  situation  "  is  frequently 


46  LATINO    TURN-OUTS. 

changed,  and  that  no  two  turn-outs  are  laid  precisely 
alike,  except  on  straight  line  and  with  plenty  of  room. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  proper  location  of  frogs 
is  the  curving  of  iron.  This  should  be  nicely  done  on 
all  curves  (as  stated  on  a  previous  page),  but  it  is  es- 
pecially important  that  it  be  well  done  among  frogs. 
The  amount  of  curve  the  iron  should  receive  can  be 
readily  ascertained  at  the  time  the  lines  are  drawn  for 
placing  the  frogs. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  proper  location  for  the 
short,  or  center  frog,  after  those  on  the  main  track  are 
put  down,  lay  out  the  curves  of  each  switch  from  the 
point  of  each  frog  on  the  main  track  to  the  end  of  the 
opposite  switch-rail.  This  may  be  done  by  driving 
stakes  into  the  ballast,  or  spikes  into  the  sleepers,  and 
stretching  a  stout,  smooth  cord  around  them.  After  a 
little  practice,  these  curves  can  be  nicely  laid  out  by  the 
eye,  by  shifting  the  stakes  or  spikes,  until  a  true  curve, 
with  the  cord,  is  produced,  and  one  that  will  give  an 
easy  passage  through  the  frogs.  Then  the  point  where 
the  cords  cross  each  other  is  the  proper  location  of  the 
short,  or  center  frog. 

It  can  now  be  easily  ascertained  how  much  the  iron 
should  be  curved.  Before  disturbing  the  cords  which 
have  been  stretched  around  the  stakes,  take  a  piece  of 
small  twine,  the  length  of  the  longest  rail  to  be  laid 
between  the  frogs,  and  stretch  it  on  the  outside  of  the 


LAYING    TURN-OUTS.  47 

stakes,  so  as  to  conform  to  the  curve  laid  down,  and 
make  a  mark  on  the  cord  at  each  end  of  the  twine. 
Between  the  two  points  thus  marked,  stretch  the  twine, 
inside  the  curve,  in  a  straight  line,  so  as  to  form  a 
chord  to  the  arc.  Then,  from  the  center  of  the  twine, 
measure  the  distance  to  the  curve,  which  will  be  the 
amount  the  iron  must  be  curved.  Similar  measure- 
ments may  be  made  half  way  between  the  center  and 
the  ends,  for  greater  accuracy.  The  rail  can  then  be 
bent  by  any  convenient  process.  The  amount  of  curve 
it  should  receive  can  be  determined  by  stretching  the 
small  twine  from  the  flange  side  of  each  end  of  the 
rail,  and  measuring  the  distances  taken  from  the  curves 
as  described.  These  distances  can  be  measured  either 
by  rule,  or  simply  by  cutting  notches  on  a  stick. 

The  guard  rail,  placed  opposite  the  frog,  is  fre- 
quently too  short,  and  the  bend  at  the  ends  too  abrupt. 
When  guard  rails  are  made  of  common  track  rail  they 
should  be  of  good  length,  and  the  bend  much  further 
from  the  end  than  is  usual.  A  short  guard  rail,  with 
the  ends  bent  at  nearly  right  angles,  is  an  abomination. 
It  is  impossible  to  keep  it  in  place,  as  it  is  hacked  and 
gouged  by  the  flanges  of  wheels  coming  in  contact  with 
the  ends  and  cutting  out  pieces  of  iron,  and  the  fasten- 
ings (which  are  not  always  of  a  substantial  character) 
soon  give  way,  resulting  in  more  or  less  damage. 

Placing  a  guard  rail  properly  is  a  much  nicer  opera- 


48  LAYING    TURN-OUTS. 

tion  than  is  generally  supposed.  It  is  amusing  to  see 
a  man,  in  spiking  a  guard  rail,  use  bis  hammer  to  meas- 
ure the  distance  the  guard  is  to  be  from  the  main  rail. 
If  he  can  drop  his  hammer  in,  lengthwise,  between  the 
main  rail  and  the  guard,  it  is  supposed  to  be  right,  no 
matter  what  the  size  of  the  hammer.  And,  notwith- 
standing the  variation  in  the  size  of  spiking  hammers, 
it  is  an  old  rule,  still  adhered  to  by  many,  to  place  the 
guard  rail  just  the  width  of  the  hammer,  at  the  eye, 
from  the  main  rail.  It  is  the  practice  of  others  to  place 
the  guard  rail  just  two  inches  from  the  track  in  all 
cases.  This  is  a  little  better  than  the  "hammer  rule," 
and,  if  the  track  is  in  true  gauge,  will  do  very  well; 
but  as  a  track  that  has  been  in  use  for  a  considerable 
time  is  often  from  a  £  to  ^  inch  wide  of  its  gauge,  if 
the  guard  rail  is  placed  by  the  two-inch  rule,  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  it  will  be  just  as  much  too  far  from  the  frog  as 
the  track  is  too  wide.  This  will  pull  the  flange  of  the 
opposite  wheel  against  the  guard  of  the  frog  with  a 
succession  of  sudden  shocks,  as  each  wheel  passes, 
soon  knocking  the  frog  loose  on  one  side  and  the  guard 
rail  on  the  other,  and  at  the  same  time  shaking  the  bolts 
out  of  rolling  stock,  thereby  adding  considerably  to  the 
expense  of  repairs. 

To  place  a  guard  rail  correctly,  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
measure  two  inches  from  the  end  of  the  gauge  and 
make  a  mark  there.  Then  place  the  opposite  end 


LAYING    TURN-OUTS.  49 

of  the  gauge  at  the  point  of  the  frog,  and  spike  the 
guard  rail  to  this  mark,  always  measuring  from  the 
point  of  the  frog,  and  not  from  the  rail  opposite.  This 
will  answer  as  a  general  rule,  yet  there  are  some  pe- 
culiar cases  to  which  it  would  not  apply  so  well ;  but 
if  there  is  anything  wrong  in  the  adjustment,  its 
cause  may  be  ascertained  by  watching  closely  as 
trains  are  passing  slowly  over  the  frog.  Sometimes 
the  flangeway  of  frogs  contains  large  quantities  of 
chips  and  shavings  that  have  been  cut  from  the  loco- 
motive flanges  while  passing  through  the  frog.  This 
indicates  something  wrong,  and  it  should  be  attended 
to  at  once.  The  cause  can  easily  be  discovered  by 
close  examination,  and  its  removal  in  season  may  pre- 
vent accident. 

Tie-rods  on  switch-rails  should  be  secured  in 
place  by  bolting  them  to  the  flanges  or  base  of  the 
rail.  They  are  usually  made  to  clasp  the  rail  loosely 
— are  driven  on  from  the  ends  of  the  rails  and  left. 
In  a  short  time  they  become  loose,  rattling  and  clat- 
tering in  a  disagreeable  manner  as  trains  pass  over 
them.  And  they  soon  slip  out  of  place,  leaving  a 
long  portion  of  the  switch-rails  with  nothing  to  pre- 
vent spreading,  which  sometimes  happens  in  conse- 
quence. 

Other  faults  might  be  shown  in  the  every  day 
practice  of  track-layers ;  but  it  is  deemed  suffi- 
4 


50  LAYING    TURN-OUTS. 

cient  to  have  called  attention  to  the  more  impor- 
tant points  generally  overlooked  by  them,  and  also 
by  stockholders  and  directors,  who,  above  all  others, 
are  interested  in  the  matter".  It  is  now*  about  forty 
years  since  we  commenced  building  railroads  in  this 
country,  and  in  that  time  we  have  built  and  put  in 
operation  upwards  of  50,000  miles  of  road.  Some 
of  these  roads  are  a  credit  to  the  builders  and  to 
the  country,  yet  it  must  be  admitted  (however  reluc- 
tantly) that  our  roads  are  not,  as  a  whole,  as  sub- 
stantially built  as  they  are  in  Europe.  The  main 
excuse  offered  for  this  is  the  want  of  capital.  It 
is,  however,  a  false  economy  to  build  railroads  in 
this  shiftless  manner,  and  undertake  to  keep  them 
open  for  traffic.  The  heavy  expense  of  maintain- 
ing the  permanent  way  in  this  country,  as  com- 
pared to  that  incurred  on  foreign  roads,  is  ample 
proof  of  this.  It  would  seem  that  our  railroad  men, 
as  a  class  (to  use  a  common  expression,)  "fell  into  a 
groove  "  years  ago,  in  regard  to  certain  practices,  and 
the  majority  of  them  are  there  yet.  A  few,  however^, 
have  left  it  to  their  advantage,  and  to  the  advantage 
of  the  public ;  and  present  indications  are  that  we  are 
on  the  eve  of  a  general  reform  in  the  construction  and 
maintenance  of  railroads  throughout  the  country. 

*1870. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ON   BALLASTING   TRACK. 

HAULING  BALLAST— WASTE  OF  GRAVEL— DUMPING  GRAVEL, 
IT  SHOULD  NEVBR  BE  DONE  TILL  ROAD-BED  is  HEADY- 
BOULDERS,  ROOTS,  ETC.,  SHOULD  NOT  BE  CARTED  WITH 
GRAVEL— RAISING  TRACK  — TAMPING  — DRESSING  OFF 
TRACKS — WHAT  TO  Do  WHEN  MATERIAL  is  SOAHCH — 
SAGS— ELEVATION  OF  CURVES. 

THE  importance  of  having  tracks  well  ballasted  is 
understood  by  all  railroad  men ;  and  the  railroad 
company  which  is  possessed  of  a  plentiful  supply  of 
good  gravel,  conveniently  situated,  may  be  considered 
fortunate.  In  some  sections  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
get  a  supply  of  even  an  inferior  article,  and  ballast- 
ing in  such  localities  is  a  very  expensive  operation. 
Ballast  is  frequently  hauled  a  long  distance,  and 
wasted  by  dumping  on  a  high,  narrow  embankment, 
down  which  it  slides  to  the  bottom,  leaving  scarcely 
any  remaining  where  it  can  be  placed  under  the  track. 
There  is  nothing  (except  pay-day)  that  pleases  a  set 
of  gravel-train  men  more  than  a  high  embankment, 
the  longer  and  higher  the  better,  with  the  ends  of  the 


52  BALLAST WASTE   OF    GRAVEL. 

ties  projecting  at  either  side,  and  situated  about  forty 
or  fifty  miles  from  the  gravel  pit.  There,  train  after 
train  may  be  dumped  with  very  little  labor,  as  the 
cars  require  no  rocking,  while  the  gravel,  all  leaving 
the  car  with  a  thin,  scraping  sound  at  the  first  tilt,  is 
soon  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  embankment,  and  the 
men  are  ready  for  a  long  ride.  The  deep  cut  near 
by  needs  widening,  sloping  and  ditching ;  but  when 
the  embankments  have  all  been  widened  with  gravel, 
the  clay  can  be  taken  out  of  the  cut  and  hauled  off  a 
dozen  miles  or  more,  and  dumped  off  from  some  bridge 
into  a  rapid  stream,  when  the  current  will  carry  it  off 
out  of  the  way,  to  the  comfort  and  amusement  of 
train-men.  On  some  roads,  however,  little  regard  is 
paid  to  the  comfort  of  gravel-train  men,  and  the  em- 
bankments are  widened  with  the  material  from  the 
nearest  cuts,  gravel  being  considered  too  expensive, 
especially  when  it  must  be  hauled  a  long  distance.  It 
seems  a  little  singular  that  there  should  be  so  much 
shabby,  slovenly  and  wasteful  work  done  on  railroads 
under  the  plea  of  poverty ;  while  yet  these  poor  com- 
panies will  allow  gravel  to  be  dumped  into  cattle-guards, 
culverts,  streams  and  swamps,  and  wasted  in  every  con- 
ceivable manner.  There  might  be  some  excuse  for 
building  a  culvert  or  trestle-work  in  a  loose  manner 
under  peculiar  circumstances,  for  temporary  use  ;  but 
there  is  none  for  wilful  waste  of  good  gravel,  and  on 


BALLAST WASTE    OF    GRAVEL.  53 

some  roads  this  waste  is  carried  to  the  extent  of  thou- 
sands of  dollars.  Gravel  should  never  be  dumped 
until  the  road-bed  is  in  good  condition  to  receive  it, 
without  danger  of  its  sliding  down  embankments,  or 
being  dumped  into  mud  and  mixed  up  with  clay  and 
slush  so  as  to  render  it  worthless  as  ballast.  •> 

Before  dumping  ballast,  the  road  should  be  closely 
examined  and  all  spikes,  bolts,  nuts,  washers,  rails, 
chairs,  ties,  etc.,  etc.,  picked  up.  Track-layers  are 
particularly  careless  in  leaving  such  property  scattered 
about  in  ditches ;  and  if  it  is  not  saved  before  bal- 
lasting, it  is  very  likely  to  be  lost.  This  subject  has 
been  spoken  of  before,  but  railroad  men  will  bear  fre- 
quent cautioning  on  all  matters  connected  with  the 
saving  of  property. 

In  some  gravel  pits  there  are  a  great  many  bould- 
ers, roots,  stumps,  etc.,  and  it  is  common  to  load  these 
with  the  gravel,  merely  to  get  them  out  of  the  way 
of  the  workmen  in  the  pit ;  and  it  often  happens  that 
this  trash  is  dumped  in  a  cut  where  it  occasions  much 
trouble  to  get  rid  of  it.  So  much  of  the  rubbish  as 
cannot  be  put  into  the  track  (and  none  of  it  should 
be),  is  left  in  the  ditch,  where  it  must  either  be  re- 
moved, or  allowed  to  remain  and  clog  the  water- 
course. Boulders,  and  all  stones  too  large  to  be  used 
as  ballast,  should  be  thrown  to  one  side  when  the  train 
is  out  of  the  pit.  They  will  be  found  useful  for 


54  GOOD    BALLAST — RAISING    TRACK. 

some  purposes,  but  they  are  not  good  for  ballast  when 
mixed  with  gravel.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  a  great 
deal  of  money  may  be  wasted  in  so  simple  an  opera- 
tion as  hauling  and  dumping  ballast. 

Raising  track  for  ballasting  is  not  always  conducted 
with  need/ul  care,  especially  when  raising  it  to  a  con- 
siderable height.  Frequently  a  joint  is  raised  on  one 
side  of  the  track  at  a  time ;  when,  if  cast  chairs  are 
used,  it  is  very  sure  to  break  off  the  lips,  and  also  to 
rack  and  twist  the  joints,  and  put  the  whole  track  into 
disorder.  This  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible, 
and  with  a  little  care  track  may  be  raised  to  any  height 
required  for  ballasting  without  doing  any  damage. 

When  the  track  is  raised,  and  before  filling  with 
gravel,  all  ties  should  be  put  in  their  proper  places, 
and  held  snugly  up  to  the  rail,  and  the  spikes  care- 
fully driven  home  ;  otherwise  gravel  and  small  stones 
will  work  under  between  the  rail  and  the  tie.  When 
ties  are  are  out  of  place,  and  the  track  is  filled  with 
gravel,  they  are  likely  to  remain  so,  much  to  the 
damage  of  the  track,  as  has  been  shown. 

In  tamping,  it  is  customary  to  tamp  the  ties  their 
entire  length ;  but  it  is  found  to  be  bad  practice  to 
tamp  as  hard  midway  between  the  rails  as  at  the  ends 
of  the  ties,  and  on  the  inner  side  of  the  rails.  All 
track  newly  raised  will  settle  more  or  less,  and  if  the 
middle  of  the  track  is  tamped  hard,  it  will  cause  it 


TAMPING LRESSINQ    OFF    TRACK.  55 

to  rock  and  work  out  of  line,  as  ballast  will  wash  out 
from  under  the  ends  of  ties  when  it  remains  hard  and 
full  in  the  center.  Such  track  will  rock  from  side  to 
side  in  a  very  disagreeable  manner,  and  is  sometimes 
dangerous,  as  ties  are  frequently  broken  from  this 
cause. 

It  is  best  always  to  leave  the  gravel  a  little  slack  in 
the  center ;  not  sufficiently  so,  however,  to  make  a 
cavity  for  water  to  settle  into,  but  so  that  the  principal 
bearing  will  be  mainly  under  the  rails,  or  as  near  them 
as  possible.  With  this  manner  of  tamping,  the  sta- 
bility of  the  track  will  be  found  much  greater  than 
when  tamped  hard  in  the  middle. 

Filling  up  and  dressing  off  track  is  usually  done 
according  to  the  taste  of  those  in  charge  of  the  work ; 
hardly  any  two  men  having  the  same  style  of  doing  it. 
It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  follow  a  given  rule  in  dress- 
ing off,  or  to  adopt  any  particular  mode  of  filling  up, 
owing  to  the  lack  of  ballast.  At  the  first  raising,  it 
is  not  advisable  to  take  much  pains  in  finishing  off,  as 
the  track  will  settle  so  as  to  require  considerable  sur- 
facing in  a  short  time,  and  any  extra  finish  it  may  have 
received  will  be  spoiled,  and  so  much  labor  lost.  The 
second  time  of  going  over  it  is  the  proper  time  to  finish 
in  good  style.  This  is  usually  done  by  the  section 
men ;  and  it  would  be  better  to  have  section  men  do 
all  the  ballasting,  as  they  are  likely  to  take  more  pains 


56  TAMPING DRESSING    OFF    TRACK. 

with  it  than  those  who  never  expect  to  see  the  track 
again  after  the  ballasting  is  done. 

When  there  is  an  ample  supply  of  ballast,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  fill  in  midway  between  the  rails,  so  that 
the  ties  will  be  covered  to  the  depth  of  about  three 
inches.  Commence  the  slope  about  a  foot  from  the 
gauge  side  of  the  rails,  and  continue  it  so  that  there 
will  be  sufficient  space  under  the  rails,  between  the 
ties,  for  water  to  run  off  freely,  and  that  at  the  ends 
of  the  ties  the  gravel  will  be  about  two  inches  lower 
than  the  top  of  the  ties.  As  much  gravel  should  be 
left  outside  the  ends  of  the  ties  as  may  be,  without 
interfering  with  the  free  passage  of  water  from  the 
track.  If  there  is  an  over-supply  of  ballast,  which 
is  sometimes  the  case,  all  that  cannot  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage should  be  scraped  into  piles  out  of  the  way, 
and  saved  for  future  use.  It  should  never  be  allowed 
to  lay  in  heaps  and  ridges  along  the  ends  of  the  ties, 
preventing  the  escape  of  water,  as  is  frequently  done. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  fill  the  track  too  full,  on  account 
of  ballast  being  plenty,  as  it  causes  trouble  when  repair- 
ing in  winter,  especially  in  shimming,  which  operation 
will  be  discussed  hereafter. 

In  filling  track  on  curves,  it  is  not  well  to  slope 
the  ballast  from  the  middle  of  the  track  each*  way, 
because,  the  outside  of  the  track  being  elevated,  it 
would  cause  water  to  settle  under  the  track.  It  is 


FILLING    TRACK    ON    CURVES.  57 

better  to  fill  the  track  so  that  the  slope  will  com- 
mence at  or  near  the  ends  of  the  ties  on  the  outer 
side  of  the  curves,  so  as  to  carry  the  water  across 
the  track  toward  the  inner  side.  The  slope  on  the 
upper  and  outer  side  must  be  shorter  and  more  in- 
clined, so  as  to  carry  the  water  from  the  ends  of  the 
ties,  or  perhaps  a  little  to  the  outside  of  them,  into 
the  ditch.  In  short,  the  main  object  in  view,  in  fill- 
ing up  and  dressing  off  track,  should  be,  in  all  cases, 
to  prevent  the  settling  of  water  under  the  ties. 

Much  damage  is  done  by  allowing  trains  to  run 
over  track  before  it  is  well  tamped  up.  When  track 
is  raised  considerably,  and  only  the  joint-ties,  and, 
perhaps,  one  or  two  intermediates,  partially  tamped, 
a  train  running  over  it  will  bend  the  iron  surface- 
wise,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  straighten  it  again 
without  heating  it ;  and  there  will  be  kinks  in  it  after 
all  is  done  when  it  has  once  been  badly  bent  on  the 
surface.  "With  good  management,  no  train  need  pass 
over  track  until  it  is  well  tamped.  It  is  an  easy  mat- 
ter, at  least,  to  have  the  track  ready  for  all  regular 
trains,  and  it  is  better  to  stop  working  or  irregular 
trains,  than  to  allow  them  to  run  over  track  before 
it  is  really  prepared  for  them.  To  some,  this  caution 
may  seem  unnecessary,  but  there  is  much  bad  track 
made  by  the  spoiling  of  the  iron  while  ballasting. 

Some  hints  have  been  given  on  filling  track   when 


58  ECONOMICAL    BALLASTING. 

plenty  of  gravel  is  at  hand.  What  follows  will  point 
out  how  the  work  should  be  done  when  there  is  a 
scarcity  of  that  material.  It  is  said  that  a  good  cook 
can  prepare  a  very  palatable  meal  with  almost  noth- 
ing to  make  it  of,  whereas  a  poor  cook  will  nearly 
breed  a  famine  when  there  is  plenty  to  eat.  So  with 
track-men  ;  some  will  put  a  piece  of  road  in  good 
order  and  keep  it  so  with  small  allowance  of  ballast, 
which  is  "  the  needful ;  "  while  others,  with  abund- 
ance, will  make  but  a  sorry  show.  The  practice  with 
most  track-men,  when  but  a  small  quantity  of  gravel 
can  be  had,  to  put  it  all  under  the  ties,  leaving 
nothing  to  fill  between  them,  is  erroneous.  For  how- 
ever small  the  quantity  of  ballast,  the  track  should  not 
be  raised  so  high  as  to  require  all  the  gravel  under  the 
ties,  but  a  portion  should  be  reserved  to  fill  between 
the  ties  and  at  the  ends.  Let  us  examine  a  piece  of 
track  with  little  or  no  material  between  the  ties,  where 
the  road-bed  and  the  ballast  are  of  a  light  sandy  na- 
ture. Some  of  the  ties  will,  of  course,  have  a  solid 
bearing,  while  others  will  hang  loosely  by  the  spikes, 
having  no  bearing  at  all  except  when  the  rail  is  de- 
flected by  a  passing  train  ;  and  as  soon  as  the  rail  is 
relieved  of  its  load  it  springs  back  to  surface,  taking 
with  it  the  ties  holding  by  the  spikes.  With  this  cav- 
ity under  the  ties,  the  sand  is  forced  out  from  under 
them  by  compressed  air  escaping  as  the  tie  is  suddenly 


ECONOMICAL    BALLASTING.  59 

forced  into  its  bearing.  Each  tie  thus  continually 
works  its  way  into  the  road-bed,  while  those  ties  hav- 
ing a  solid  bearing  are  not  so  affected.  Any  one 
having  doubts  of  the  truth  of  this  statement  may  be 
convinced  of  its  correctness  by  sitting  close  to  the 
track  when  a  train  is  passing.  He  will  notice  that 
a  jet  of  sand  escapes  from  under  every  loose  tie, 
forced  out  by  the  rush  of  air  caused  by  the  sudden 
settling  of  the  tie  into  the  cavity,  which  literally 
pumps  the  ballast  from  under  the  track.  There  is  no 
way  of  obviating  this  when  the  road-bed  is  not  wide 
enough  to  prevent  the  ends  of  the  ties  projecting 
over  the  slope,  which  is  often  the  case  on  unfinished 
roads,  and,  not  unfrequently,  on  roads  considered 
finished.  When  the  road-bed  is  of  ample  width,  fill 
the  track  (as  before  stated)  between  and  at  the  ends 
of  the  ties,  so  as  to  exclude  air  and  water  as  much 
as  possible.  Mud  or  clay,  from  the  ditches  at  the 
side  of  the  track,  is  preferable  to  air  for  ballast,  for 
if  track  is  well  filled  with  even  a  poor  material  it  will 
keep  in  order  much  longer  than  with  an  insufficient 
quantity  of  good  gravel,  with  none  between  the  ties. 
The  track  is  often  raised  too  high  for  the  amount  of 
ballast  at  hand,  owing  to  the  desire  of  the  track-men 
to  put  the  track  on  true  grade,  leaving  no  sags.  This 
is  very  desirable,  but  it  is  far  better  to  leave  sags  and 
have  ballast  enough  to  fill  the  track  properly,  than  to 


60  FILLING   TRACK — SAGS. 

make  a  true  grade  and  leave  the  track  naked.  Of 
course  a  short  sag  looks  bad,  and  we  can  hardly  blame 
a  track-man  for  taking  it  up,  even  with  scarcity  of 
ballast ;  but  stability  should  not  be  sacrificed  to  appear- 
ances. How  often  do  we  see  a  piece  of  track  at  the 
foot  of  a  steep  grade,  on  a  high  embankment,  piked 
up  as  far  as  possible,  with  all  available  material  put 
under  it,  and  the  ends  of  the  ties  projecting  over  the 
slope  of  the  embankment,  squirting  ballast  as  every 
train  passes,  and  requiring  the  constant  attention  of  the 
section-men  to  keep  it  in  anything  like  a  safe  condition ; 
when,  by  leaving  a  slight  sag,  it  might  be  kept  in  toler- 
able running  order  with  half  the  labor  that  is  required  in 
its  present  misplaced  elevation.  It  is  not  well  to  be 
too  particular  in  bringing  track  up  to  a  true  grade  on 
new  roads,  as  the  road-bed  will  settle,  and  on  heavy 
fills  it  will  require  raising  several  times  before  it  will 
remain  up  to  grade.  It  is  impossible  to  keep  track  in 
line  when  it  all  lies  above  the  ballast,  and  there  is 
nothing  to  steady  it  and  keep  it  in  place.  An  old- 
fashioned  outside-connected  locomotive  will  throw  such 
a  track  out  of  line  at  a  remarkable  rate ;  and  where 
such  engines  are  used,  it  requires  constant  attention 
to  keep  track  that  is  not  properly  ballasted  in  good  line. 
The  elevation  of  curves  is  a  matter  that  has  occupied 
the  attention  of  track-men  and  engineers  to  a  consider- 
able extent  ever  since  the  commencement  of  railroad 


INSUFFICIENT    BALLAST.  61 

building  in  this  country.  Formerly  it  was  the  custom 
to  give  curves  a  greater  elevation  than  is  the  practice 
at  present.  The  views  of  engineers  differ  widely  in 
this  matter,  some  claiming  that  elevation  is  unnecessary, 
while  others  argue  that  it  is  indispensable.  Then,  what 
some  would  consider  a  proper  elevation  would  not  be 
so  considered  by  others ;  and  the  degree  of  elevation 
therefore  varies  considerably  on  different  roads  through- 
out the  country.  The  degree  of  elevation  is  usually 
left  to  the  decision  of  track-men  while  it  should  more 
properly  be  determined  by  engineers ;  and  the  degree 
of  elevation  should  be  marked  on  the  center  stakes, 
as  well  as  the  degree  of  curvature,  to  serve  as  a  guide 
in  ballasting. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

TRACK   REPAIRS. 

METHODS  UNCHANGED  FOB  A  QUAETEH  OF  A  CENTURY— ROU- 
TINE IDEAS  OF  TRACK-MEN — SECTION-MASTEKS  :  THEY  ABE 
OFTEN  BADLY  PAID — CHEAP  SECTION-MASTERS  NOT  DESIR- 
ABLE—WORK ON  A  NEW  ROAD— JOINT-TIES  — LINING 
TBACK  :  IN  FBOSTY  LOCALITIES— CLEARING  OUT  DITCHES 
AND  CULVERTS  :  THEIR  PROPER  DIMENSIONS  —  KINKS  IN 
RAILS  —  IMPORTANCE  OF  TRUE  GAUGE  — TRESTLE-WORK 
AND  BRIDGES  SHOULD  BE  PLANKED  FOR  FOOT  PASSEN- 
GERS. 

NOTWITHSTANDING  the  improvements  made  within  the 
past  fifteen  or  twenty  years  in  the  construction  and 
management  of  railroads,  there  is  one  department,  that 
of  track-repairing,  that  may  be  said  to  remain  pre- 
cisely as  it  was  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago.  The  aver- 
age section-master  has  been  following  a  beaten  path, 
and  he  practices  the  same  method,  in  performing  the 
various  operations  pertaining  to  his  department,  that 
was  adopted  at  the  commencement  of  railway  travel  in 
this  country.  He  has  little  or  no  opportunity  to  profit 
by  the  experience  of  others  in  his  calling ;  his  own  ex- 
perience is  usually  limited ;  and  it  rarely  occurs  to 


CHEAP    SECTION-MASTERS.  63 

him  that  there  is  any  better  way  to  do  a  certain  job 
than  the  way  he  has  been  accustomed  to  do  it.  This 
is  not  the  case  with  those  engaged  in  other  depart- 
ments, as  they  have  the  benefit  of  the  experience  of 
older  hands,  and  opportunities  of  communicating  their 
ideas  to  each  other  ;  while  the  section-master  is  "  sol- 
itary and  alone,"  and  "must  stand  on  his  own  bot- 
tom." He  is  left  to  his  own  resources,  and,  although 
burdened  with  a  great  responsibility,  he  is  not  consid- 
ered worthy  of  notice  by  men  engaged  in  other 
departments.  There  are,  however,  exceptions  to  this 
rule,  and  there  are  many  track-men  who  have  had  op- 
portunities for  observation  which  they  have  well  im- 
proved, and  who  would  make  good  section-masters. 
Railroad  managers,  however,  are  apt  to  pursue  an  un- 
wise policy  in  these  appointments,  and,  influenced  by 
a  false  economy,  to  employ  men  of  little  experience, 
as  they  can  be  had  for  less  money.  It  is  a  practice 
with  many  companies  to  cut  down  the  wages  of  sec- 
tion-masters at  every  favorable  opportunity,  so  that  all 
the  keen,  wide-awake  men,  who  have  seen  service,  will 
not  *'  stand  the  pressure,"  but  leave  for  better  paying 
situations  ;  and,  as  there  are  plenty  of  incompetent 
rnerr  willing  to  take  their  places  at  the  reduced  wages, 
the  managers  consider  that  they  are  making  money  by 
the  change.  They  argue  that  "any  man  who  has 
worked  on  track  repairs  a  little  while  can  take  care 


64  CHEAP    SECTION-MASTERS. 

of  a  section,  and  we  are  not  going  to  pay  a  man  fifty 
or  sixty  dollars  a  month,  when  we  can  get  the  work 
done  for  half  that  sum." 

Now,  here  is  a  great  mistake.  These  half-price 
men  are  the  most  expensive  that  can  be  employed. 
The  property  in  the  care  of  a  section-master  has  cost 
a  great  deal  of  money,  and,  if  not  properly  cared  for, 
wears  out  rapidly ;  and  a  section-master  who  under- 
stands his  business  can  save  more  money  for  the  com- 
pany than  his  wages  amount  to.  Indeed,  an  incom- 
petent foreman  of  a  section  will  waste  more  than 
would  pay  a  dozen  good  men.  The  best  are  not  too 
good,  and  a  really  good  one  is  cheap  at  any  price  ; 
while  a  poor  one  is  so  expensive  that  no  company  can 
afford  to  employ  him.  There  are  many  matters  of 
importance  connected  with  track  repairs  that  are  not 
generally  understood,  and  it  is  for  the  interest  of  the 
railroad  community  to  give  the  whole  subject  careful 
consideration  ;  to  see  to  it  henceforth  that  track-repair- 
ing is  put  into  the  hands  of  none  but  capable  men, 
who  will  improve  its  methods,  and  carry  into  their 
work  a  spirit  of  thoroughness  and  efficiency. 

The  first  work  of  the  section-master,  on  taking 
charge  of  a  section  on  a  new  road,  is  to  undo  work 
that  has  been  improperly  done  by  the  track-layers. 
If  the  track  has  been  laid  according  to  the  suggestions 
in  a  former  chapter,  it  will  need  but  little  overhauling  ; 


SECTION-MASTERS SURFACING    TRACK.  65 

but  there  is  generally  more  or  less  work  of  this  kind 
to  be  done.  Suppose  the  track  to  have  been  ballasted. 
The  work  now  will  be  to  take  out  sags,  and  put  the 
track  in  first-rate  surface.  Great  care  should  be 
exercised  in  surfacing,  and  on  'straight  line  it  should 
be  perfectly  level.  It  should  be  tamped  as  uniformly 
as  possible,  and,  as  before  mentioned,  a  little  slack  in 
the  middle.  Now  is  the  time  to  attend  to  this,  as  it 
is  important  to  keep  track  level  in  its  cross  section; 
and  if  hard  tamped  in  the  middle,  it  is  impossible  to 
keep  it  so.  The  joint-tie  should  always  be  the  last 
one  tamped.  This  is  contrary  to  the  ordinary  practice, 
but  a  little  reflection  will  prove  it  to  be  the  true  way.  It 
is  an  easy  matter  to  raise  a  tie  by  tamping  it  with  bars, 
in  good  ballast,  and  if  the  side-ties  are  tamped  after 
the  joint,  it  will  raise  the  joint-tie  so  that  it  will  be 
loose,  hanging  by  the  spikes  to  the  rail.  If  but  one 
side-tie  is  tamped  after  the  joint,  it  will  cause  a  cocked 
joint,  exposing  the  end  of  one  rail,  on  each  side  of  the 
track,  to  severe  pounding  by  passing  trains.  By 
taking  the  joint-tie  in  hand  last,  it  can  be  raised  a 
trifle  by  hard  tamping ;  and  the  joint  will  then  have  a 
solid  support,  and  not  bear  too  much  on  the  side-ties. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  joint-tie  is  more  likely  to 
settle  than  any  other ;  and  miles  of  track  can  be  found 
on  some  roads  without  a  solid  joint  in  the  whole 
distance,  owing  to  the  ordinary  practice  of  tamping 
5 


66  LINING    TRACK. 

the  joint  first.  Of  course  these  loose  joint-ties  cause 
iron  to  wear  rapidly,  and  are  also  injurious  to  rolling 
stock. 

Lining  Track. 

The  importance  of  having  track  in  good  line  is  not 
fully  realized  by  track-men  generally,  and  it  is  often 
much  neglected.  Many  suppose  that  after  track  is 
once  well  lined  it  needs  no  further  attention ;  it  is, 
however,  constantly  working  out  of  line,  from  various 
causes.  Now  the  line  is  of  more  importance  than  the 
surface.  When  track  is  only  moderately  rough  in  the 
surface,  there  is  nothing  very  serious  about  it,  if  the 
line  is  good,  and  the  iron  lies  solid  on  the  ties,  as 
there  is  provision  made  for  unevenness  of  surface  in 
the  construction  of  rolling  stock.  But  any  defect  in 
the  line  of  track  cannot  be  compensated  for  in  the 
censtruction  of  cars  and  locomotives.  Of  course  the 
unevenness  of  surface  is  not  desirable,  and  should  be 
remedied  as  far  as  possible,  but  of  the  two  evils  it  is  the 
least.  There  is  nothing  more  disagreeable  to  passen- 
gers and  train-men  than  the  sudden  yanking  and 
jerking  of  cars  from  side  to  side,  caused  by  track 
being  out  of  line ;  and  not  only  is  it  disagreeable,  but 
the  iron  is  badly  worn  in  consequence,  with  a 
corresponding  wear  to  cars,  etc.  When  track  is  well 
ballasted  it  will  remain  in  line  much  better  than  when 


LINING   TRACK DRAINAGE.  67 

insufficiently  ballasted.  When  one  side  of  the  track 
has  settled  somewhat,  it  will  work  out  of  line  by  the 
sudden  shocks  imparted  to  the  rails  by  the  lateral 
motion  of  car  trucks,  and  outside-connected  freight 
engines,  when  laboring  hard,  disturb  the  line  consider- 
ably. But  the  chief  cause  of  track  getting  out  of 
line  is  the  raising  of  it  when  surfacing.  Placing  a 
bar  under  the  end  of  the  tie,  when  raising  track,  has 
a  tendency  to  pull  it  toward  the  operator,  although  it 
be  but  a  trifle.  Perhaps  the  next  joint  will  need  rais- 
ing on  the  opposite  side,  and  thus  one  joint  is  pulled 
out  of  line  a  trifle  in  one  direction,  while  at  the  next 
it  is  pulled  in  the  opposite  direction,  leaving  it  zigzag. 
Track  should  always  be  put  in  line  after  surfacing,  for 
the  above  reason.  The  line  may  not  be  greatly  dis- 
turbed by  one  surfacing,  yet  as  track-men  are  con- 
stantly going  over  the  road  picking  up  low  joints,  and 
as  some  joints  require  frequent  raising,  the  track  soon 
gets  badly  out  of  line,  and  should  be  attended  to.  It 
is  better  to  line  after  surfacing,  and  before  filling  in 
the  ballast,  as  the  track  is  easily  moved  then  ;  and, 
when  it  is  put  in  place  and  the  ballast  filled  in  after- 
ward, it  will  the  better  keep  in  line.  In  frosty  locali- 
ties, where  the  ballast  and  road-bed  remain  frozen  for 
a  considerable  time,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  give  track  a 
thorough  lining  at  the  commencement  of  cold  weather, 
or  when  it  is  expected  that  the  track  will  soon  freeze 


68  DITCHES,   CULVERTS,  ETC. 

up ;  otherwise  it  must  remain  out  of  line  for  many 
months,  in  which  time  the  iron  will  have  worn  consider- 
ably, and  there  will  be  a  heavy  addition  to  the  expense 
of  car  repairs  in  consequence. 

Ditches,  Culverts,  Etc. 

Track-men  do  not  pay  sufficient  attention  to  drain- 
age. The  section-men  will  find  more  or  less  gravel 
remaining  in  ditches,  culverts,  etc.,  after  ballasting, 
frequently  obstructing  the  passage  of  water.  All  this 
should  be  removed  and  all  water-courses  put  in  good 
order,  as  it  is  impossible  to  keep  track  in  good  sur- 
face when  water  is  allowed  to  soak  through  the  road- 
bed, as  is  frequently  the  case,  though  a  little  labor 
would  prevent  it.  In  narrow  cuts,  where  there  is 
but  a  slight  descent  for  the  passage  of  water,  a  very 
little  gravel  or  rubbish  will  cause  water  to  penetrate 
the  road-bed,  and  much  labor  is  wasted  in  surfacing 
that  might  be  saved  by  a  very  little  labor  in  the 
ditches.  It  is  a  common  thing  to  see  a  considerable 
gang  of  men  employed  day  after  day  with  tamping 
bars,  surfacing  in  some  cut,  while  the  ditches 
are  half  filled  with  water  and  rubbish ;  what  little 
gravel  there  is  in  the  track  mixed  with  wet  clay,  be- 
ing made  into  mortar  by  the  use  of  the  tamping  bars. 
It  will  often  be  found  that  a  large  quantity  of  gravel 
has  slid  down  the  embankment  and  lodged  in  the 


DITCHES,    CULVERTS,    ETC.  69 

mouth  of  a  culvert,  which  is  hidden  by  grass  and 
weeds ;  and  those  culverts  are  frequently  too  small 
to  allow  a  free  passage  of  water,  even  when  kept 
clear.  In  cases  of  high  water,  chips,  small  sticks, 
and  all  manner  of  floating  trash,  by  settling  in  the 
gravel  at  the  mouth  of  the  culvert,  soon  form  a  place 
of  lodgment  for  larger  floating  substances.  In  this 
way  the  culvert  is  completely  dammed  up,  and  thus 
embankments  are  frequently  injured  or  completely 
washed  away,  when  a  little  attention  would  have  pre- 
vented any  damage.  A  stone,  a  fragment  of  wood, 
or  any  other  obstruction  lying  in  a  ditch,  or  culvert, 
is  not  in  itself  any  great  injury  to  the  road,  but  it 
will  collect  sufficient  rubbish  in  a  short  time  to  occa- 
sion mischief.  A  block  of  .wood  falling  from  a  loco- 
motive tender  and  rolling  into  the  ditch  ;  or  a  strip  of 
board,  or  fence  stake,  or  other  obstructive  substance, 
lodging  across  the  mouth  of  a  culvert,  has  often  been 
the  cause  of  damage  which  has  cost  hundreds  of  dol- 
lars to  repair.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  clear  all  rubbish 
out  of  small  streams  for  a  considerable  distance  above 
the  culvert ;  and  not  only  from  the  bed  of  the  stream, 
but  for  a  considerable  distance  on  either  side,  where 
there  is  any  possibility  of  the  overflowing  of  the  banks. 
Small  streams  (very  small  ones)  are  more  dangerous 
than  large  ones.  A  stream  of  tolerable  size  is  usually 
provided  with  ample  room  for  free  passage  at  bridges, 


70  DIMENSIONS    OF    C0LVERTS. 

and  the  water  in  it  runs  with  sufficient  force  to  pre- 
vent any  floating  substance  lodging  so  as  to  cause 
mischief.  Of  course  all  logs  or  trees  lodging  against 
piers  or  abutments  should  be  cleared  away,  and  this 
matter  is  generally  attended  to  ;  while  a  few  leaves 
and  small  sticks  lodged  in  a  culvert,  which  are  really 
more  dangerous,  are  likely  to  remain  unnoticed.  Sec- 
tion-masters are  too  apt  to  think  that  attention  to 
such  matters  is  out  of  their  line  of  duty,  and,  owing 
to  their  anxiety  to  have  "  the  best  riding  section  on 
the  road,"  consider  it  to  their  disadvantage  to  have 
any  labor  performed  except  on  the  track ;  but  it  is 
clear  that,  in  this  view  «f  their  obligations,  they  lose 
sight  of  the  interest  of  the  company. 

With  respect  to  culverts,  it  may  be  well  to  say  here 
that  engineers  are  often  at  fault  in  estimating  their 
proper  dimensions.  Culverts  are  often  staked  out  in 
a  dry  season  of  the  year,  and  the  engineer  is  apt  to 
be  deceived  as  to  the  quantity  of  water  that  may  flow 
into  them  at  other  seasons,  or  in  case  of  a  freshet. 
In  other  cases  the  ground  is  frozen  and  covered  with 
sno,w,  and  a  ravine  is  crossed  by  an  embankment,  no 
culvert  being  considered  necessary ;  then,  as  the 
ground  thaws  out,  a  considerable  stream  makes  its 
appearance,  which  must  force  a  passage,  if  one  is  not 
provided,  through  the  embankment.  It  costs  more 
to  build  a  large  culvert  than  a  small,  but  when  to  the 


KINKS 'iN    RAILS.  71 

cost  of  the  small  one  is  added  that  of  getting  an  en- 
gine and  a  train  of  cars  out  of  the  mud,  repairs  to  en- 
gine, cars,  track,  etc.,  to  say  nothing  of  the  hindrance 
to  other  trains,  and  possible  loss  of  life,  the  in- 
creased prime  cost  of  the  larger  culvert  is  more  than 
counterbalanced.  In  case  of  doubt  as  to  the  size  of 
culvert  needed,  it  is  best  always  to  take  the  safe  course 
and  be  sure  that  they  are  large  enough.  It  is  some- 
times suspected  that  the  engineers  figure  for  the  interest 
of  contractors  in  building  culverts  ;  and  the  frequen- 
cy of  accidents  on  some  roads,  caused  by  culverts 
being  too  small,  or  by  the  want  of  any  passage  for 
water,  might  suggest  these  conclusions.  However 
this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  an  immense  amount  of 
property  is  destroyed  and  many  lives  lost  every  year 
from  this  cause,  and  yet  these  accidents  are  generally 
looked  upon  as  unavoidable,  and  no  one  is  blamed. 

As  before  stated,  the  section-master  will  find  much 
to  do  in  putting  to  rights  what  has  been  neglected  by 
the  track -layers.  Perhaps  a  few  rails  have  been  laid 
with  "kinks"  in  them,  the  result  of  bad  handling. 
If  any  such  are  found,  they  should  be  removed  and 
replaced  by  straight  ones ;  or,  if  there  is  no  iron  to 
use  in  their  place,  they  may  be  taken  out  and  straight- 
ened with  the  chain,  lever  and  sledge.  If  they  are 
so  badly  kinked  as  to  require  heating  to  straighten 
them,  a  fire  may  be  built  at  a  convenient  place,  and 


72  KINKS  IN  'KAILS. 

the  rails  heated  on  the  spot,  without  taking  them  to 
the  shop  for  that  purpose.  With  this  treatment  iron 
will  last  much  longer  than  if  allowed  to  remain  out 
of  shape.  Many  joints  will  be  found  badly  spiked, 
displaced  or  twisted  out  of  shape  in  ballasting,  so  that 
the  ends  of  the  rails  do  not  meet  in  good  line,  and  if 
these  are  allowed  to  remain  so  the  iron  will  soon  be 
spoiled.  The  spikes  should  be  drawn  and  all  such 
joints  spiked  over  again,  and  the  joint-ties  which  are 
out  of  place,  so  that  the  meeting  of  the  rails  is  over 
one  side  of  the  tie  instead  of  over  the  centre,  should 
be  at  once  adjusted.  Although  it  requires  consider- 
able labor  to  do  this,  it  pays ;  and  the  sooner  it  is 
done  the  better. 

On  inspecting  track,  it  will  be  often  found  that  the 
gauge-side  will  be  too  wide  in  some  places  and  too 
narrow  in  others ;  and  if  the  deviation  is  not  very 
slight,  it  is  best  to  draw  the  spikes  and  spike  to  a 
true  gauge.  Some  of  the  evils  of  this  inaccuracy  of 
gauge  have  been  explained  in  a  previous  chapter,  but 
as  the  matter  is  an  important  one  and  much  over- 
looked, it  is  proper  to  call  attention  to  it  here,  for  the 
good  of  the  section-master  and  the  interest  of  the 
company. 

The  section-master  should  thoroughly  examine  all 
trestle-work  and  bridges,  and  see  that  the  hints  here 
given  to  track-layers  have  been  acted  upon.  How- 


IMPORTANCE  OF  A  TRUE  GAUGE.        73 

ever  carefully  the  work  may  have  been  done,  it  is 
possible  that  some  important  matter  may  have  been 
overlooked.  The  bridge  carpenters  may  have  neglect- 
ed to  secure  the  stringers,  so  as  to  prevent  their  moving 
out  of  place,  leaving  this  work  for  the  track-layers, 
who  in  turn  may  have  overlooked  the  matter  or  left 
it  for  the  section-men  to  attend  to  ;  and  as  they  are 
the  last  men  on  the  ground,  to  them  belongs  the  duty 
of  making  good  the  shortcomings  of  those  who  have 
gone  before.  Perhaps  the  cross-ties  have  not  been 
secured  so  that  they  will  not  jar  out  of  place.  This 
should  be  done  in  a  substantial  manner,  and  on 
bridges  where  there  is  much  crossing  on  foot,  planks 
or  boards  should  be  nailed  or  spiked  across  the  ties, 
so  as  to  form  a  safe  footway.  It  is  impossible  to  pre- 
vent people  crossing  bridges,  and,  this  being  the  case, 
it  is  better  to  make  the  passage  safe,  not  only  for  the 
general  convenience  and  safety  but  for  the  conven- 
ience of  track-men  themselves.  There  are  many 
bridges  thrown  over  dangerous  streams,  with  no  way 
for  pedestrians  to  cross  except  by  stepping  from  tim- 
ber to  timber,  where  to  fall  through  would  be  certain 
death,  and  if  caught  by  a  train  escape  would  be  im- 
possible. Many  of  these  bridges  are  so  constructed 
that  there  is  no  room  for  a  person  to  stand  in  safety 
while  a  train  is  passing,  even  were  the  fastenings 
secure,  and  even  with  plenty  of  room  timid  persons 


74  FOOT-WALKS    ON    TRESTLE    WORK. 

would  incur  imminent  danger.  In  fact  hundreds  of 
persons  have  met  their  death  in  this  way ;  and  as  a 
notice  at  the  end  of  the  bridge  prohibiting  people 
from  crossing  amounts  to  nothing,  it  is  best  for  the  sec- 
tion-master to  provide  a  safe  foot-way,  except  on  such 
bridges  as  require  a  guard  night  and  day  to  prevent 
persons  walking  over. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

DRAWING   SPIKES — SHIMMING. 

WASTE  IN  SPIKE-DBAWING — CLAW-BARS — THE  BULL'S-FOOT 
—SPIKE-DRAWING  IN  WINTER— Loss  BY  CARELESSNESS— 
SHIMMING  :  ITS  ADVANTAGES— OFTEN  BADLY  DONE— SHIMS 
OFTEN  ILL-MADE  AND  OF  BAD  MATERIAL-CONSEQUENCES 
—SHIMMING  IN  FROSTY  WEATHER— How  TO  MANAGE  IT- 
TAMPING — THICK  SHIMS  SHOULD  BE  SPIKED  TO  TIES — MA- 
CHINE-MADE SHIMS  —  SHIMMING  UNDER  TIES,  OR  UPON 
CULVERTS,  TRESTLE-WORK,  ETC.— WHAT  COMES  OF  SHIMS 
WORKING  OUT— Bo AD-CROSSINGB— WOOD-PILES. 

Drawing  Spikes. 

THE  various  operations  connected  with  track  repairs 
necessitate  the  drawing  of  a  great  many  spikes,  which 
operation  is  usually  very  carelessly  performed.  The 
heads  are  pulled  off  or  the  spike  is  bent  so  that  it  can 
not  be  driven  again,  and  a  new  one  must  take  its  place. 
A  great  many  tons  of  spikes  are  yearly  wasted  by  care- 
lessness in  drawing  and  by  bad  handling  afterwards. 
As  claw-bars  are  usually  made,  it  is  impossible  to  draw 
a  spike  without  spoiling  it  for  future  use.  The  claws 
should  be  so  shaped  as  to  take  no  hold  of  the  point  of 
the  head,  otherwise  the  head  is  either  broken  entirely 


76  CLAW-BARS. 

off,  or  is  bent  so  as  to  become  unfit  for  use.  Now, 
when  the  claws  are  made  properly,  all  the  force  ap- 
plied to  the  spike  in  drawing  it  will  come  in  a  line 
with  the  body  of  the  sjpike,  so  that  it  can  be  drawn 
straight.  Some  spikes  are  of  bad  shape  to  draw  in 
good  condition  for  future  use,  but  with  a  claw-bar  of 
the  proper  form,  and  care  in  drawing,  a  great  many 
spikes  can  be  saved. 

There  are  a  good  many  kinds  of  claw-bars,  some  of 
which  work  well ;  and  there  are  several  kinds  of  patent 
bars  for  pulling  spikes  which  are  well  spoken  of,  but 
for  some  reason  they  have  not  yet  come  into  general 
use ;  and  probably  the  old  style  of  "bull's-foot "  claw  is 
as  good  as  any,  if  properly  made.  It  is,  however,  a 
difficult  job  to  make  a  good  claw-bar,  but  as  it  is  an 
implement  which  is  in  almost  constant  use,  it  should  be 
rightly  made  and  used.  Even  with  a  good  claw-bar, 
when  not  handled  rightly,  spikes  are  often  broken,  bent 
and  twisted  needlessly.  A  great  many  spikes  are 
broken  and  destroyed  by  attempting  to  draw  them  in 
winter  when  the  ties  are  frozen  solid,  and  when  they 
can  not  be  drawn  by  any  claw-bar  without  breaking. 
This  is  one  instance  of  a  vast  amount  of  labor  per- 
formed by  repair-men  that  results  in  no  good  to  the 
track  or  profit  to  the  company ;  much  of  which,  in- 
deed, is  rather  an  injury  than  a  benefit,  not  only 
wasting  time  and  labor,  but  destroying  property  in 


WASTK    IN    SPIKE-DRAWING.  77 

place  of  saving  it  or  keeping  it  from  wear.  It  is  one 
way  of  wasting  time  and  destroying  property  to  draw 
spikes  for  repairs  when  they  are  not  needed.  Track- 
men have  a  great  desire  to  be  busy,  especially  about 
train-time,  and  they  frequently  draw  spikes  for  ^Dim- 
ming when  it  is  not  necessary,  as  in  severe  cold 
weather,  when  not  one  spike  in  ten  can  be  drawn  with- 
out breaking.  Of  course  those  drawn  must  be  replaced 
with  new  ones,  which  are  expensive.  Every  railroad 
company  is  paying  out  large  sums  of  money  for  spikes, 
a  great  part  of  which  might  be  saved  by  paying  a  little 
attention  to  the  matter.  But  this  is  not  all,  for  not 
only  spikes,  but  chairs,  bolts,  etc.,  and  often  bars, 
hammers,  and  other  tools  are  broken  by  careless  use 
in  frosty  weather,  so  that  it  would  be  better  for  the 
company  to  pay  the  men  for  sitting  by  the  fire  than  to 
have  this  kind  of  work  done  at  such  times.  Those 
who  have  not  given  the  subject  special  attention  would 
be  surprised  at  the  amount  of  money  that  can  be 
saved  by  exercising  more  care  in  this  seemingly  un- 
important matter.  There  are  other  ways  of  destroy- 
ing this  kind  of  property,  and  it  is  singular  that  such 
wasteful  practices  are  allowed  to  such  an  extent  as 
they  are.  Some  of  the  best-managed  roads  in  the 
country  have  their  spike  account  increased  hundreds, 
not  to  say  thousands,  of  dollars  yearly,  by  the  slash- 
ing, tearing,  ripping  style  of  doing  work  which  some 


78  SHIMMING. 

track-men  have.  It  is  frequently  considered  too 
much  trouble  to  draw  spikes,  and  they  are  driven  in- 
to the  tie  out  of  the  way,  being  hammered  until  the 
heads  break  off,  when  one  more  blow  sinks  it  out  of 
sight.  This  operation  is  sometimes  performed  to  such 
an  extent  that  a  half-dozen  or  more  spikes  are 
jammed  into  a  single  tie,  resulting  in  the  loss  of  S0( 
many  spikes  and  the  injury  of  the  tie,  which  is  by  no 
means  trifling.  Sometimes  a  chisel-pointed  crowbar 
is  used  to  force  spikes  from  the  rail.  By  placing 
the  bar  perpendicularly  and  using  the  rail  as  a  ful- 
crum, the  spike  is  bent  sufficiently  to  allow  the  remov- 
al of  the  rail,  when  shifting  iron  ;  and  when,  after- 
wards, another  rail  is  put  in  its  place,  the  spikes  are 
driven  up  to  the  rail  and  so  left.  Old  hands  fre- 
quently do  this,  and  there  are  miles  of  track  served 
in  this  manner,  with  only  a  portion  of  the  spikes  tak- 
ing any  hold  of  the  rail.  Track  left  in  this  condition 
is  not  safe  ;  and  it  has  often  been  the  cause  of  se- 
rious trouble.  This  matter  is  well  worthy  the  atten- 
tion of  railroad  managers,  and  it  is  singular  that  it 
should  be  so  generally  overlooked. 

Shimming  the  Track. 

In  winter,  when  ballast  is  frozen  so  that  track  can- 
not be  surfaced  by  tamping,  it  is  done  by  shimming, 
which  is  often  performed  in  a  shiftless  manner,  and 


SHIMMING.  79 

many  serious  accidents  have  happened  on  track  in  con- 
sequence. If  shimming  is  well  done,  it  is  one  of 
the  nicest  and  most  important  operations  connected 
with  track  repairs.  It  prevents  wear  of  iron  and 
rolling  stock  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  oper- 
ation consuming  the  same  amount  of  labor. 

Some  section-men  make  shims  out  of  blocks  of  wood 
that  have  fallen  from  the  tender,  or  have  been  thrown 
overboard  by  firemen  when  too  large  for  their  use, 
and  sometimes  they  split  off  a  piece  from  the  end  of 
a  tie,  make  a  wedge  with  a  dull  hatchet,  drive  it  un- 
der the  rail,  and  cobble  it  up  in  such  a  manner  that 
it  will  roll  and  rack  frightfully  under  a  passing  train. 
Track  is  sometimes  raised  on  shims  of  considerable 
thickness  so  that  the  spikes  scarcely  enter  the  tie, 
and  after  a  few  trains  have  passed  the  spikes  will  not 
touch  the  rail,  as  every  vibration  of  the  rail  forces 
the  spike  from  it,  where  it  remains.  This  is  very  un- 
safe. These  shims  frequently  get  loose  and  work 
out  from  under  the  rail,  and  a  great  deal  of  iron  is 
ruined  by  being  bent  in  the  surface  from  this  cause. 
Rails  may  often  be  found  without  support  for  several 
feet,  the  shims  having  worked  out,  and  the  rail  so 
bent  that  it  cannot  be  straightened  without  heating. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  track-men  go  along  the 
road,  pick  up  the  shims  that  have  worked  out,  and 
slip  them  under  the  rail,  when,  if  the  rail  has  been 


80  SHIMMING    IN    FROSTY    WKATHER. 

sufficiently  sprung  in  the  surface,  they  may  hold  it 
for  a  short  time  ;  but  they  will  soon  work  out  again, 
and  then  it  may  be  necessary  to  hew  off  a  little  be- 
fore they  will  go  under  the  rail,  owing  to  its  be- 
ing bent.  In  this  manner  track  that  has  been  raised 
on  shims  three  inches  thick  will  soon  come  down  to 
half  that  thickness.  This  kind  of  work  is  practiced 
to  a  far  greater  extent  than  is  generally  supposed, 
and  there  is  hardly  any  road-master  but  can  find 
some  bad  shimming  on  his  road  if  he  closely  exam- 
ines it. 

Much  labor  is  wasted,  when  frost  has  left  or  is 
leaving  the  track  at  the  close  of  the  winter,  in  remov- 
ing shims  that  should  be  left  under  the  rail.  Of 
course  shimming  is  rendered  necessary  by  track  be- 
ing thrown  or  heaved  out  of  surface  by  the  action  of 
frost,  and  when  the  frost  leaves,  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
move the  shims.  In  fact,  this  should  be  a  busy  time 
for  section-men,  where  much  shimming  has  been 
done,  as  it  is  often  dangerous  to  let  shims  remain  af- 
ter the  track  has  settled  to  its  bearing  when  the  frost 
is  fairly  out.  It  has  formerly  been  the  practice  on 
all  roads,  to  shim  only  when  the  track  could  not  be 
tamped  on  account  of  frost ;  but  it  is  now  the  custom 
on  some  roads  to  shim  in  summer,  when  it  requires 
but  slight  raising  to  put  the  track  in  good  surface. 
This  is  a  gootl  plan  and  should  be  practiced  on  all 


ON    REMOVING    SHIMS.  81 

roads,  as  no  doubt  it  will  be  when  once  its  advan- 
tages become  known.  When  joints  are  down  but  a 
trifle  and  the  ties  have  settled  to  a  good  bearing,  it 
disturbs  ballast  to  tamp  it,  and,  if  rains  occur  soon 
after  tamping,  the  track  is  likely  to  settle  out  of  sur- 
face again  very  soon ;  whereas,  if  a  shim  is  placed 
under  the  rail,  it  will  remain  in  good  surface  a  long 
time.  On  looking  at  the  surface  of  track,  it  may  ap- 
pear to  be  all  right,  when,  on  a  close  examination  of 
the  joint-ties,  they  will  be  found  a  trifle  loose — just 
enough  so  to  expose  the  ends  of  the  rails  to  the 
pounding  action  of  wheels,  by  which  the  iron  is  soon 
spoiled.  It  is  better  to  shim  such  a  joint  than  to 
tamp  it,  even  in  summer.  A  great  deal  of  track  that 
is  shimmed  in  winter  settles  into  first-rate  surface  in 
the  spring,  with  the  shims  remaining  in  the  track  ;  but 
it  is  the  practice  of  section-men  to  remove  the  shims 
and  raise  the  ties  to  the  rail  and  tamp  them.  This 
should  never  be  done,  for  it  is  worse  than  throwing 
away  labor,  as  the  track  is  not  in  as  good  condition 
as  it  was  before  the  removal  of  the  shims,  and  a  fre- 
quent tamping  is  necessary  to  keep  it  in  good  surface, 
when  if  the  shims  had  been  allowed  to  remain  no  la- 
bor would  have  been  required.  Of  course,  shimming 
should  have  been  well  done  when  it  is  allowed  to  re- 
main, and  not  cobbled  up  on  round  sticks  or 
as  is  often  the  case. 
6 


82  MAKING    GOOD   SHIMS. 

When  a  shim  of  considerable  thickness  is  required, 
it  should  be  spiked  to  the  tie  and  other  spikes  driven 
through  the  shim,  in  the  manner  of  spiking  when  no 
shim  is  used  ;  otherwise  the  track  may  spread  and 
cause  mischief,  especially  on  curves.  Shims  should 
be  prepared  by  machinery,  of  hard  wood,  and  of  va- 
rious thicknesses,  bored  for  the  spikes,  and  when 
used  the  tie  should  be  adzed  off  smoothly  so  that  the 
shim  may  have  a  good  bearing.  Ties  that  have  been 
in  the  track  for  a  considerable  time  will  be  found  to 
be  grooved  under  the  rail,  and,  unless  the  groove  is 
adzed  out,  the  shim  will  break,  and  the  portion  under 
the  rail  will  settle  into  the  groove  and  thus  materially 
alter  the  surface  of  the  track.  When  track-men  are 
obliged  to  furnish  their  own  shims  they  make  them  out 
of  any  material  they  get  hold  of,  sometimes  out  of 
a  pine  board  knocked  off  the  fence,  or  a  block  cut 
from  a  cedar  fence-post,  or  something  else  which  is 
worthless  for  the  purpose  ;  and  it  is  for  the  interest  of 
railroad  companies  to  furnish  shims  ready  for  use  and 
see  that  they  are  properly  used. 

Joints  are  often  shimmed  in  winter  when  they  do 
not  really  need  it,  for  a  joint  may  be  considerably 
down  and  at  the  same  time  the  ends  of  the  rails  lay 
perfectly  solid  in  the  chairs.  In  such  cases  it  is  bet- 
ter not  to  disturb  it  in  frosty  weather,  as  the  iron  is 
not  subjected  to  unusual  wear,  and  the  loss  from 


SHIMMING    UNDER    TIES.  83 

breakage  will  overbalance  any  benefit  that  can  be  de- 
rived from  shimming. 

In  regard  to  making  shims  by  machinery,  no  expen- 
sive apparatus  is  necessary,  as  any  ordinary  car  or 
repair  shop  is  furnished  with  all  needful  appliances 
for  making  shims  to  good  advantage,  and  one  man 
can  make  more  shims  and  better  ones  in  a  day, 
in  an  ordinary  repair  shop,  than  a  whole  gang  of 
section-men  can  hew  and  hack  out  in  twice  that 
time.  Good  hard  timber  can  readily  be  sawed  into 
shims  of  various  thicknesses  and  packed  into  boxes 
to  be  sent  where  they  are  needed.  Where  many 
shims  are  used  it  will  pay  to  rig  a  boring  appar- 
atus especially  for  that  purpose.  This  can  be  done 
with  very  little  expense  in  any  shop  by  arranging 
two  bits  of  the  proper  size  in  position  to  bore  both 
holes  at  one  operation.  It  is  best  to  bore  the  blocks 
before  sawing  them  into  shims.  New  roads  which 
have  not  got  their  shops  in  operation,  or  short  lines 
which  have  no  extensive  shops,  affording  facilities  for 
making  shims,  will  find  it  good  economy  to  have  them 
made  at  some  private  shop. 

It  might  be  thought  that  sufficient  has  been  said 
about  shimming,  but  there  is  room  for  a  few  further 
remarks  on  the  subject,  especially  on  shimming  under 
ties,  on  open  culverts,  trestle-work,  etc.  Blocks,  or 
shims,  of  several  inches  in  thickness,  are  frequently 


84  SHIMMING    UNDER    TIES. 

used  in  such  places,  and  as  they  are  out  of  sight, 
they  frequently  work  out,  and  remain  out  a  long  time 
before  it  is  discovered.  In  all  such  places  shims 
should  be  nailed  or  spiked  to  the  stringer.  It  may 
be  said  that  any  one  would  know  that ;  but  whoever 
will  get  on  a  locomotive,  and  ride  over  some  roads, 
.will  notice  that  the  engine  generally  makes  a  lurch  at 
every  culvert  or  cattle-pass  it  comes  to  ;  and  the  cause 
of  this  will  be  found,  in  many  cases,  to  be  owing  to 
the  shims  being  displaced  under  a  portion  of  the  ties. 
Engineers  on  some  roads  can  tell  on  a  dark  night  ex- 
actly where  they  are,  without  taking  notice  of  sur- 
rounding objects,  by  a  certain  rolling  or  pitching 
motion  of  the  engine  when  passing  over  certain 
cattle-guards  or  culverts.  The  shims  may  after  a 
time  be  replaced,  but  while  they  are  out  the  rails  be- 
come bent  in  the  surface,  and  no  amount  of  wedging 
or  shimming  will  straighten  them  afterwards.  There 
are  roads  of  considerable  length  where  it  would  be  a 
difficult  matter  to  find  a  straight  rail  on  a  cattle  guard 
or  open  culvert ;  and  this  is  owing  mainly  to  shims 
working  out  from  under  the  ties,  or  from  under  the 
ends  of  rail-plates,  when  no  cross-ties  are  used. 

At  other  times  the  rail  becomes  bent  by  frost  heav- 
ing the  track  at  each  end  of  the  culvert,  carrying  the 
soil  up  and  the  ties  or  rail-plate  with  it,  leaving  the 
rails  with  no  support  for  the  width  of  the  culvert  or 


ACTION    OF    FROST — ROAD    CROSSINGS.  85 

cattle-guard  ;  and  then  the  rails  must  of  course  settle 
under  the  weight  of  passing  trains,  until  they  reach 
their  former  bearing.  Track  is  not  unfrequently 
raised  gradually  several  inches  by  the  action  of  frost, 
and  this  leaves  the  iron  the  same  distance  above  its 
bearing  unless  it  is  shimmed.  In  frosty  localities  the 
action  of  frost  should  be  closely  watched,  as  shims 
that  are  thick  enough  for  to-day's  use  may  not  answer 
to-morrow,  owing  to  the  constant  raising  of  the  track  by 
the  action  of  frost ;  and  such  track  needs  shimming  of- 
ten. There  is  no  railroad  company  in  cold  sections  of  the 
country  but  has  suffered  more  or  less  from  the  neglect 
of  .section-men  to  put  in  shims  when  frost  enters  the 
ballast,  and  to  remove  them  when  it  is  leaving ;  and, 
although,  as  previously  stated,  it  is  best  under  some 
circumstances  to  let  shims  remain,  it  is,  under  others, 
necessary  that  they  be  removed  to  prevent  accident. 
There  are  other  matters  connected  with  the  action  of 
frost  which  are  frequently  overlooked,  and  which  it 
may  be  proper  to  mention  here. 

Planks  at  road-crossings  are  frequently  raised-  by 
frost  so  as  to  be  caught  by  the  pilot,  and  cause  more 
or  less  damage.  Sometimes  these  planks  are  so  raised 
that  they  become  grooved  and  scraped  by  bolts  hang- 
ing from  the  pilot  or  from  brake  beams,  and  no  notice 
is  taken  of  it  until  a  plank  becomes  loose,  and  then 
comes  mischief.  These  planks  should  be  watched  and 


Ob  DANGER    FROM    WOOD-PILES. 

kept  in  a  safe  condition  by  taking  them  up  and  pick- 
ing away  from  between  the  ties  the  frozen  ballast, 
which  is  usually  the  cause  of  the  plank  being  disturbed. 
It  is  obvious  that  if  the  ties  rise  with  the  plank  there 
can  be  no  danger ;  but  when  the  plants  are  raised  by 
the  expansion  or  heaving  of  the  ballast  between  the 
ties,  so  as  to  draw  the  spikes  from  the  ties,  or  the  spike- 
heads  through  the  plank,  it  then  becomes  dangerous, 
and  should  be  attended  to. 

Wood-piles  are  sometimes  tipped  over  upon  the 
track  by  the  action  of  frost  in  the  spring  of  the  year, 
as  it  is  leaving  the  ground.  In  winter  long  piles  of 
wood  are  often  placed  as  near  the  track  as  possible, 
leaving  barely  room  for  the  safe  passage  of  trains  ; 
and  when  a  thaw  commences  it  may  go  on  more  quickly 
on  the  side  next  the  track,  in  which  case  the  top  of 
the  pile  may  be  thrown  so  near  the  track  as  to  be  dan- 
gerous. When  a  wood-pile  is  seen  to  be  settling  to- 
wards the  track  it  should  not  be  watched  too  long  be- 
fore taking  measures  to  prevent  it  from  falling.  A  pile 
may  appear  safe,  when  the  jar  of  an  approaching  train 
might  shake  off  a  few  sticks,  which  would  be  sufficient 
to  cause  damage  that  a  little  more  care  on  the  part  of 
track-men  might  prevent. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
REPAIRING  SWITCHES,  FROGS,  ETC. 

BBHT  SWITCH-BODS— THE  THROW  OF  SWITCHES— CONNECT- 
ING-BODS— FROUS:  CAST-STEEL  PLATE  AND  RAIL  FROGS- 
FASTENING  GUARD-RAILS— SHORT  GUARD-RAILS— USELESS 
TIXKERING. 

IN  yards  where  much  switching  is  done,  running 
off  at  switches  is  a  frequent  occurrence,  and  switch- 
rods  are  often  so  bent  that  the  gauge  of  the  switch  is 
made  much  too  narrow.  If  these  rods  are  not  straight- 
ened the  ends  of  all  the  rails  at  the  head  of  the  switch 
will  be  exposed  to  rough  usage,  as  the  switch-rails 
will  not  meet  in  line  with  the  others.  It  is  best  always 
to  keep  spare  rods  on  hand,  to  be  used  in  case  of  a 
run-off.  The  bent  rods  can  then  be  taken  to  the  shop 
and  straightened  for  future  use.  Rods  may  be  pro- 
tected by  placing  a  tie  on  each  side  of  them,  leaving 
just  room  enough  between  the  ties  for  the  rod  to  move 
freely.  In  case  of  a  run-off,  the  ties  will  relieve  the 
rods  of  the  weight  of  the  wheels  and  prevent  bending. 
The  throw  of  switches  should  be  nicely  adjusted, 
so  that  the  head  of  the  switch  will  meet  in  perfect  line 


88  SWITCHES    AND    FROGS. 

with  the  ends  of  all  connecting  rails.  It  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  see  iron  at  switches  exposed  to  the  action  of 
wheel-flanges,  and  cut  and  gouged  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  require  removal  before  it  has  served  out  half  its 
time.  Connecting-rods  should  be  so  constructed  that 
they  may  be  lengthened  or  shortened,  as  may  be  nec- 
essary, to  adjust  the  throw  of  the  switch,  which  would 
prevent  unnecessary  wear  of  rail,  and  also  of  loco- 
motive flanges. 

There  are  certain  kinds  of  frogs  which  need  much 
attention  to  keep  them  in  place.  The  ordinary  cast- 
steel  plated  frogs  are  bad  in  this  respect ;  but  they  are 
rapidly  going  out  of  use,  giving  place  to  elastic  frogs 
and  what  are  known  as  rail  frogs.  All  short  frogs  are 
difficult  to  keep  in  place,  and  probably  the  rail  frog  is 
superior  to  all  others  in  regard  to  stability.  Frogs  are 
often  neglected  after  they  become  loose,  both  in  their 
bearings  and  laterally ;  this  often  results  in  the  break- 
ing of  the  frog  or  in  injuring  the  trains,  and  not  un- 
frequently  in  both. 

Much  injury  is  caused  by  putting  a  new  frog  with 
old  iron ;  that  is,  iron  that  has  been  in  use  so  long  as 
to  be  worn  down  considerably  lower  than  the  frog. 
Or  sometimes  a  rail  of  lower  pattern  is  used  next  the 
frogs,  which  causes  the  frog  to  be  severely  pounded  by 
every  wheel  that  passes.  There  is  scarcely  anything 
more  disagreeable  in  railway  practice  than  running  a 


GUARD-RAILS.  89 

locomotive  over  the  hard,  square,  unyielding  end  of  a 
steel-plated  frog  that  is  from  £  to  ^  an  inch  higher 
than  the  connecting  rail ;  but  if  you  call  the  attention 
of  the  track-man  to  it,  he  is  very  likely  to  tell  you  that 
"it  will  soon  wear  down  to  the  rail,  and  then  it  will  be 
all  right."  But  when  there  is  the  slightest  difference 
between  the  height  of  the  frog  and  rail,  shims  of  iron 
plates  should  be  used  to  bring  them  to  a  level.  A 
nick  should  be  cut  in  the  plate  for  the  spike,  to  pre- 
vent its  working  out.  If  the  rail  is  higher  than  the 
frog  (which  is  rarely  the  case),  it  can  be  chipped  off 
on  the  bottom  so  as  to  correspond  with  the  height  of 
the  frog ;  and  it  will  pay  to  be  very  particular  in  do- 
ing this  kind  of  work. 

The  fastenings  to  guard-rails  should  be  of  a  more 
substantial  character  than  they  often  are.  It  is  com- 
mon to  use  cast  fastenings  on  a  great  many  roads,  but 
there  are  guards  on  other  roads  with  no  fastenings  but 
ordinary  spikes,  and  a  short  guard-rail  can  not  be  well 
secured  by  any  number  of  these  alone.  In  the  absence 
of  castings  it  is  common  to  fit  a  piece  of  plank  into 
the  throat  of  the  guard  and  spike  it  to  the  tie.  This 
answers  a  good  purpose,  but  not  less  than  two 
should  be  used  to  each  guard-rail,  and  the  more  the 
better  —  as  many  as  there  are  ties  to  spike  them  to. 
One  of  these  braces  alone,  if  placed  near  the  middle 
of  a  guard-rail,  is  worse  than  nothing  ;  for  there  is,  of 


90  GUARD-RAILS. 

course,  more  or  less  strain  on  the  end  of  the  guard- 
rail, as  it  is  pressed  by  the  flanges  of  wheels,  and  if 
only  spikes  are  used  at  the  end  they  will  yield  con- 
siderably. Now  if  there  is  an  unyielding  fastening 
in  the  middle,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  shock  takes 
effect  in  the  opposite  direction,  at  the  other  end  of  the 
guard ;  and  as  trains  pass  in  different  directions  the 
action  is  reversed,  the  guard-rail  acting  as  a  double 
lever,  with  the  single  plank  or  casting  in  the  middle 
as  a  fulcrum.  In  this  manner  a  guard-rail  will  soon 
be  knocked  loose,  and  not  unfrequently  thrown  entirely 
out  of  the  track ;  and  the  man  who  spiked  it  will 
wonder  why  it  is  that  the  brace  he  took  so  much  pains 
to  place  in  the  center  did  not  prevent  its  getting  loose, 
when  it  was,  in  reality,  the  cause  of  it. 

The  inefficiency  of  short  guard-rails  was  mentioned 
in  a  previous  chapter ;  but  as  they  will,  no  doubt,  be 
frequently  met  with  by  repair-men,  I  should  advise 
them  to  take  them  up,  throw  them  in  the  scrap  heap, 
and  use  good  long  ones  instead,  such  as  can  be  secured 
in  place  and  serve  their  purpose  satisfactorily  at  all 
times. 

The  common  practice  of  putting  a  piece  of  plank  or 
a  car  stake  between  the  frog  and  the  guard-rail,  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  the  latter,  is  a  bad  one.  Guard- 
rails sometimes  receive  severe  pounding,  and  the  frog 
must  receive  a  portion  of  the  shock,  which  will  in  time 


USELESS    TINKERING.  91 

loosen  the  spikes  which  hold  it  in  place,  unless  it  is 
well  shouldered  into  the  cross  timbers  that  support  it, 
which  is  not  always  the  case.  There  is  usually  an  im- 
mense amount  of  useless  tinkering  done  among  frogs 
and  switches  that  serves  only  to  pass  away  time  which 
the  company  must  pay  for,  and  makes  a  great  show  of 
work,  while  accomplishing  nothing. 

A  great  deal  of  work,  too,  is  done  on  track  repairs 
before  it  is  needed,  for  the  sake  of  being  busy,  at  a 
useless  waste  of  time  and  money.  Of  course  there  will 
occasionally  be  a  slack  time,  or  times  when  there  is 
nothing  particularly  urgent  on  hand  to  do  ;  and  it  is 
at  these  times  that  the  foreman  of  track  repairs  has  to 
show  his  experience  and  judgment,  in  placing  his  men 
where  they  can  be  best  employed  for  the  interest  of 
the  company. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

RENEWING   TIES — SHIFTING  IKON. 

THE  WORK  NOT  so  SIMPLE  AS  IT  LOOKS  — NEEDS  TO  BB 
DONE  INTELLIGENTLY  —  DIFFERENCE  OF  TIES  —  How 
TRACK  is  AFFECTED  BY  CHANGING  TIES — RAILS:  WHEN 
ENDS  ARE  BROOMED  —  STEP-CHAIRS  FOR  LAYING  RE- 
PAIRED IRON  —  ADJUSTING  REPAIRED  RAILS  —  SPIKE- 
vDRAWiNG— PRESERVING  THE  GAUGE  — UNCURVED  IRON 
FOR  CURVES. 

WHEN  ties  have  been  selected  and  laid  according 
to  the  directions  given  in  a  former  chapter,  it  will 
be  comparatively  easy  to  replace  old  ties  with  new 
ones ;  otherwise  it  will  be  difficult  to  do  it  prop- 
erly. I  do  not  mean  to  be  understood  that  it  is  a 
very  difficult  affair  to  take  out  a  decayed  tie  and  put 
a  new  and  sound  one  in  its  place,  as  is  done  ordina- 
rily ;  but  to  do  it  well  requires  considerable  care  and 
attention.  The  work  is,  however,  too  often  entrusted 
to  a  squad  of  inexperienced  men,  with  no  one  to  act 
as  foreman,  under  the  delusion  that  any  man  or  gang 
of  men  is  capable  of  doing  it.  This  is  a  mistake, 
and  a  serious  one  too,  under  which  some  of  the  best 
track-men  in  the  country  are  laboring.  It  is  not  gen- 


RENEWING    TIES.  96 

erally  known  by  section-masters,  or  even  road-mas- 
ters, that  a  small  tie  has  a  heavier  weight  to  sustain 
than  a  large  one,  and  that  therefore  it  requires  some 
skill  and  intelligence  to  manage  properly  the  appar- 
ently simple  operation  of  renewing  ties.  It  is  easily 
understood  that  a  small  tie  will  settle  into  the  ballast 
further  under  the  same  load  than  a  large  one,  and 
that  the  rail  will,  in  consequence,  spring  considerably 
more  when  supported  by  the  former  than  when  over 
the  latter.  Now  let  us  suppose  that  several  small 
ties  are  placed  next  to  several  large  ones  and  that  the 
small  ones  settle  an  inch  more  than  the  large  ones, 
(which  is  not  an  extravagant  supposition)  ;  it  is  ob- 
vious that  the  small  ties  are  subjected  to  a  blow  of 
six  or  eight  tons,  more  or  less,  as  the  case  may  be, 
falling  one  inch,  in  excess  of  what  the  larger  ties 
have  to  sustain. 

Of  course  the  section-men,  in  renewing  ties,  should 
remove  only  such  as  are  decayed.  When  ties  vary 
much  in  size,  as  they  usually  do,  it  is  only  the  small 
ones  that  require  removal,  as  the  large  ones  are  capa- 
ble of  doing  duty  for  a  year,  or  perhaps  several  years 
longer.  If  they  have  been  assorted  when  first  laid, 
and  those  of  a  uniform  size  laid  together,  of  course 
each  set  of  equal  size  will  be  so  far  decayed  as  to  ren- 
der it  necessary  to  remove  them  all  at  one  time,  while 
the  next  or  adjoining  set  (length  of  iron),  if  larger, 


94  RENEWING    TIES. 

may  remain  for  a  time  longer.  In  this  way  tbe  rail 
will  receive  a  uniform  support,  as  well  when  the  new 
ties  are  under  it  as  it  did  with  the  old  ones.  If  the 
ties  have  been  laid  promiscuously,  without  regard  to 
size,  then,  in  removing  those  which  are  decayed,  a  tie 
will  be  taken  out  here  and  there ;  and  as  a  new  tie, 
well  tamped,  gives  the  rail  a  more  solid  foundation 
than  an  old  one,  it  has  a  bad  effect  on  rolling  stock, 
and  on  the  track  also,  giving  the  latter  an  uneven  sup- 
port. The  condition  of  track,  in  regard  to  its  so- 
lidity, is  subject  to  two  changes  under  the  operation 
of  removing  ties  when  it  is  done  at  random :  first,  by 
disturbing  the  road-bed  under  the  ties  newly  laid, 
while  it  remains  solid  under  others ;  next,  after  the 
second  tamping  of  the  new  ties,  which  is  necessary 
soon  after  they  are  put  in,  they  become  the  most  un- 
yielding by  reason  of  the  greater  solidity  of  the  wood 
now  resting  on  an  equally  solid  bearing  in  the  ballast. 
Any  one  riding  on  a  locomotive  over  a  track,  after  ties 
have  been  removed  and  replaced  at  random,  will  ap- 
pear to  travel  over  a  very  uneven  surface,  owing  to  a 
want  of  uniform  support  by  the  ties.  Thus  it  will 
be  seen  that  there  is  room  for  the  exercise  of  as  much 
care  and  attention  in  the  simple  operation  of  renew- 
ing ties  as  in  laying  them  at  first,  in  order  that  the 
track,  and  the  company,  may  receive  the  full  benefit 
of  so  expensive  an  operation. 


UNIFORMITY    IN    TIES SHIFTING    IRON.  95 

Because  a  small  tie  has  a  heavier  load  to  sustain 
than  a  large  one,  it  follows  that  when  several  small 
ties  are  laid  together,  they  will,  under  some  circum- 
stances, settle  an  inch  or  more  in  excess  of  larger 
ones  placed  adjoining  them.  This  may  appear  absurd 
to  many  railroad  men,  especially  to  those  who  have 
had  the  good  fortune  always  to  have  been  employed 
on  roads  so  well  tied  that  there  is  barely  room  between 
the  ties  for  tamping ;  which  have,  in  fact,  almost  a 
solid  bed  of  timber  with  rails  laid  on  of  the  heaviest 
pattern.  Unfortunately  for  the  railroad  community, 
however,  and  the  community  at  large,  there  are  but 
few  such  roads  in  the  country  ;  and  those  whose  ex- 
perience has  been  on  roads  where  ties  are  laid  very 
scatteringly  and  with  a  light  rail  will  have  no  diffi- 
culty in  finding  ample  proof  of  the  correctness  of 
what  has  been  said. 

Shifting   Iron. 

When  a  rail  gets  badly  broomed  at  the  ends,  it  is 
taken  to  a  shop  and  repaired  by  welding  on  a  piece  of 
bar-iron  to  level  it  up  to  its  former  shape.  A  great 
deal  of  iron  remains  sound  and  in  good  condition 
throughout  its  entire  length,  after  the  ends  have  be- 
come battered  so  as  to  render  them  unfit  for  use.  It  is 
therefore  a  matter  of  economy  to  repair  such  rails, 
and  put  them  to  further  use,  rather  than  to  put  new 


96  SHIFTING    IRON STEP-CHAIRS. 

iron  in  their  place,  as  iron  that  is  well  repaired  and 
properly  replaced  in  the  track  will  answer  nearly  as 
well  as  new  iron  for  a  long  time.  It  requires  con- 
siderable care,  however,  in  replacing  it  in  the  track, 
to  make  repaired  iron  pay.  Sometimes  the  end  of  a 
rail  that  has  been  repaired  is  placed  next  to  one  that 
has  not  been  worn  or  battered  sufficiently  to  require 
removing.  Tn  such  cases  the  ends  of  the  repaired 
rails,  being  higher  than  the  adjoining  ones,  are  exposed 
to  a  severe  pounding  and  are  soon  spoiled,  so  that  re- 
paired iron  does  not  always  pay  expenses.  In  laying 
repaired  iron,  what  are  known  as  step-chairs  should 
be  used.  These  may  be  made  of  any  of  the  ordinary 
styles  of  cast  chairs,  but  with  the  rail  seat  on  one 
side  lower  than  that  on  the  other,  so  that'  rails  vary- 
ing somewhat  in  height  may  be  placed  together  and 
yet  form  a  true  and  even  joint,  preventing  all  unnec- 
essary wear  or  pounding  of  iron.  The  lips  of  step- 
chairs  should  be  made  low  and  have  both  sides  alike, 
so  that  they  may  be  used  either  side  out,  or  on  either 
side  of  the  track,  as  occasion  may  require.  It  is  best 
also  to  provide  chairs  of  various  patterns,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  height  of  the  step,  that,  varying  slightly, 
they  may  accommodate  any  variation  in  the  height  of 
rails.  The  expense  of  furnishing  these  chairs  is  but 
a  trifle  as  compared  to  the  saving  they  effect  in  the 
wear  of  iron,  and  it  is  economy  to  use  them  even 


RELAYING  IRON DRIVING  AND  DRAWING  SPIKES.    97 

•when  the  variation  in  the  height  of  the  iron  is  very 
slight. 

The  various  operations  in  repairing  track  render  it 
frequently  necessary  to  draw  spikes  from  ties.  Now 
if,  in  replacing  iron,  the  rails  can  occupy  exactly  the 
same  place  as  those  taken  out,  and  leave  the  gauge 
correct,  it  is  better  to  fill  the  spike-holes  with  sand 
and  drive  the  spikes  in  the  old  holes.  For  if  these 
are  driven  in  new  places  every  time,  the  tie  soon  be- 
comes full  of  holes,  which  fill  with  water.  Thus  the 
timber  is  softened  under  the  rail  and  soon  rots,  while 
all  other  portions  remain  sound.  It  is  best,  there- 
fore, to  drive  spikes  in  the  old  holes,  after  filling  or 
plugging  them  up,  unless  there  is  some  good  rea- 
son for  driving  them  in  a  new  place,  in  which  case 
the  old  holes  should  be  tightly  plugged  to  keep  out 
water. 

In  putting  new  iron  in  the  place  of  old,  it  is  the  cus- 
tom with  many  to  draw  the  spikes  only  on  one  side  of 
the  rail.  In  some  cases  this  may  be  done  to  good 
advantage,  as  it  will  save  considerable  labor,  as  well 
as  the  damage  to  ties  and  spikes  which  is  the  result 
of  careless  drawing.  As  old  track  is  usually  wide 
gauge,  if  the  new  rails  are  wider  on  the  tread  than 
the  old  ones,  the  gauge  may  occasionally  be  made 
correct  or  nearly  so,  though  the  spikes  are  drawn  on 
one  side  only.  But  it  is  not  worth  while  to  be  too  par- 
7 


98  ADJUSTING    REPAIRED    RAILS CURVES. 

ticular  about  saving  labor  in  this  work  to  the  sacri- 
fice of  a  true  gauge,  and  better,  therefore,  as  a  rule, 
to  draw  all  the  spikes.  Several  miles  of  track  might 
have  been  seen,  not  long  ago,  on  what  is  considered 
a  first-class  road,  where  the  laying  of  new  iron  had 
reduced  the  gauge  half  an  inch.  The  rails  in  conse- 
quence were  wearing  out  rapidly,  and  could  last  but 
a  short  time  under  those  conditions.  In  the  same 
way  the  use  of  iron  of  some  other  pattern,  with  a 
broader  base,  might  render  a  gauge  ^  an  inch  or  more 
too  wide  ;  and  yet,  judging  from  the  practice  of  some 
track -men,  they  are  not  aware  that  track  iron  is 
made  of  more  than  one  size  or  pattern,  but  believe 
that  all  rails  are  alike. 

In  renewing  iron,  as  in  laying  new  track,  curving 
is  often  neglected.  A  car  load  of  iron  is  run,  per- 
haps, hundreds  of  miles  from  where  it  was  loaded, 
to  the  spot  where  the  iron  is  to  be  used,  when  it  is 
distributed  from  the  car  and  laid  without  regard  to 
curving  or  straightening.  If  the  iron  is  to  be  laid  on 
straight  line,  this  plan  is  well  enough,  care  being 
taken  to  straighten  such  rails  as  have  been  kinked  in 
handling ;  but  if  it  is  to  be  laid  on  a  sharp  curve, 
it  is  better  to  unload  it  carefully  at  the  end  of  the 
curve,  and  then  it  can  be  properly  curved  and  laid 
from  the  iron  car,  or  a  hand  car,  as  in  laying  new 
track. 


BELAYING  CURVED  IRON.  99 

In  relaying  iron  that  has  been  taken  from  the  track 
and  repaired,  it  frequently  happens  that  some  which 
has  been  in  use  on  a  curve  is  relaid  on  a  straight  line. 
In  such  cases  the  curve  should  be  well  taken  out  of  it 
before  laying  it.  At  other  times  it  is  found  convenient 
to  lay  on  curves  iron  which  has  previously  been  used 
on  a  straight  line,  and  this  is  often  done  without  curv- 
ing it.  This  matter  does  not  generally  receive  the  at- 
tention its  importance  demands.  Iron  is  taken  out 
for  repairs  and  sent  to  a  shop,  which  may  be  many 
miles  away,  and  when  it  is  ready  for  use  again  it  is 
likely  to  be  sent  to  some  other  part  of  the  line,  far 
away  from  where  it  was  taken  out.  As  there  is 
no  remedy  for  this,  all  iron  coming  from  the  rail 
shops  should  be  closely  examined  before  laying  it, 
to  see  that  it  is  in  proper  shape.  The  operations 
of  removing,  repairing  and  relaying  iron,  are,  alto- 
gether, expensive,  and  if  not  well  done  will  not 
pay.  From  the  report  of  the  New  York  State  En- 
gineer, for  year  ending  September,  1869,  it  ap- 
pears, that  the  cost  for  repairs  of  iron  in  road  bed, 
in  that  State  during  the  year,  was  $4,717,907.54 ; 
and  no  doubt,  fifty  per  cent,  of  this  cost  might  have 
been  saved  by  proper  care  and  attention  in  laying 
the  track,  and  by  giving  it  proper  care  and  attention 
afterwards. 

The  cost  of  maintaining  the  permanent  way  is  one 


100    UNNECESSARY   EXPENSE  OF  PERMANENT  WAY. 

of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  the  profitable  working 
of  any  railroad ;  but,  as  before  said,  this  expense, 
on  some  roads,  is  more  than  double  what  it  need  be, 
if  proper  measures  were  taken  to  prevent  all  unnec- 
essary wear  to  track  iron. 


CHAPTER  X. 

SNOW  AST)   ICE. 

SNOW-PLOWS  INSUFFICIENT — JEALOUSY  OF  MASTER  MECHAN- 
ICS A  HINDRANCE  TO  THEIR  IMPROVEMENT — OTHER  REA- 
SONS—CLEARING THE  FLANGE-WAY— SOME  METHODS  OF 
DOING  THIS. 

IN  some  sections  of  the  country  the  expense  of  re- 
moving snow  and  ice  from  railroad  tracks  is  enor- 
mous, and  as  the  work  is  usually  done  by  section- 
men,  and  often  charged  to  the  account  of  track  re- 
pairs, it  may  be  proper  to  offer  some  hints  on  the 
subject. 

The  clearing  of  snow  from  railroad  track  has  not 
received  sufficient  attention  from  managers,  and  track- 
men are  in  a  great  measure  powerless  in  this  matter 
without  the  co-operation  of  the  superintendent  and 
master  mechanic.  The  last  named  official  is  usually 
on  hand  in  case  of  a  severe  storm,  with  a  huge  snow- 
plow,  constructed  in  his  shop,  after  his  plan.  This 
commonly  requires  the  united  efforts  of  from  three  to 
six  locomotives  to  move  it  through  enormous  drifts  of 


102  SNOW    PLOWS. 

snow,  or  through  the  deep  cuts  that  are  filled  with  it ; 
and  when  once  the  monster,  with  wings  extended,  has 
passed  over  the  line,  it  returns  to  be  made  much  of 
by  every  mechanic  who  had  the  least  part  in  its  con- 
struction, and  increase  the  self-complacency  of  its  de- 
signer. There  is  hardly  any  first-class  railroad  in 
snowy  parts  of  the  country  but  is  provided  with  some 
kind  of  "  big  snow-plow,"  and,  as  a  general  thing, 
they  are  useful  for  removing  heavy  drifts  of  deep 
snow;  but  they  are  apt  to  leave  large  quantities  in  the 
flange-way,  which  soon  become  packed  and  frozen  into 
solid  ice,  offering  a  great  obstruction  to  trains.  What 
is  thus  left  to  pack  down  in  the  flange-way  is  usually 
neglected  by  the  master  mechanic  and  those  under  his 
charge,  and  track-men  are  left  to  their  own  resources 
to  remove  it,  and  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that 
when  a  section-master  applies  to  the  foreman  of  the 
shop  for  aid  in  perfecting  or  repairing  some  imple- 
ment for  clearing  ice  from  the  'flange,  he  is  insulting- 
ly turned  off  with  the  reply  that  "  the  big  plow  has 
been  over  the  road,  and  that  is  sufficient." 

When  the  first  railroad  was  built  in  this  country, 
it  was  asked :  "  Can  we  run  it  in  winter  on  account 
of  snow?"  It  was  a  question  not  easily  answered 
then,  but  after  a  few  years'  experience  it  was  demon- 
strated that,  with  proper  appliances,  snow  would  not 
seriously  interfere  with  railroad  traffic,  or,  at  least, 


SNOW  •PLOWS.  103 

that  the  difficulty  was  not  an  insurmountable  one. 
Years  later,  very  goo'd  snow-plows  were  put  in  opera- 
tion on  some  roads,  but  even  the  best  of  them  were 
not  adopted  on  roads  other  than  those  for  which  they 
were  built,  and  there  is  not  to  this  day  any  standard 
snow-plow  in  use.  The  reason  assigned  is  the  great 
reluctance  of  master  mechanics  generally  to  adopt 
each  other's  improvements.  However  this  may  be,  it 
is  certain  that  no  thoroughly  efficient  snow-plow  has 
ever  come  into  general  use,  and  of  all  improvements 
of  a  mechanical  nature,  pertaining  to  railroads,  the 
snow-plow  may  be  said  to  be  in  the  rear.  There 
seem  to  be  at  least  two  good  reasons  for  this  :  one  as 
stated  above,  and  the  other  that  the  article  is  needed 
only  a  portion  of  the  year,  and  it  is  somewhat  in  the 
condition  of  the  roof  of  a  certain  man's  house  ;  when  it 
was  fair  weather  it  needed  no  repairs,  and  when  it 
rained  he  could  not  repair  it.  So  with  building  a 
snow-plow ;  in  hot  summer  weather,  or  in  pleasant 
weather  in  autumn,  it  is  forgotten  ;  and  when  every 
one  is  up  to  his  ears  in  snow  it  is  too  late  to  commence 
building  one,  as  winter  will  soon  be  over  and  it  will 
not  be  needed.  This  is  the  excuse  on  some  roads, 
year  after  year,  for  not  building  a  first-class  snow- 
plow  ;  and  winter  after  winter  their  trains  are  lost  in 
some  severe  storm  and  not  heard  from  for  days  at  a 
time.  When  the  snow  is  all  gone  in  the  spring,  the 


104      CLEARING  FLANGE-WAYS  OF  SNOW  AND  ICE. 

managers  conclude  they  have  had  an  unusually  hard 
winter  and  probably  will  never  see  the  like  again, 
that  it  is  at  least  doubtful  if  a  snow- plow  will  be 
needed  the  following  winter — and  so  none  is  built. 
This  is  the  practice  of  many  companies  year  after 
year. 

But  a  more  particular  consideration  of  the  snow- 
plow  belongs  to  another  chapter.  The  matter  in 
hand  is  the  work  of  clearing  track  of  snow  and  ice, 
in  which  track-men  are  especially  interested. 

When  the  flange-way  of  the  track  becomes  filled 
with  hard  snow,  which  soon  forms  into  ice,  it  offers 
great  resistance  to  passing  trains,  and  the  wood  or 
coal  pile  is  correspondingly  diminished.  This  impor- 
tant matter  is  often  neglected  by  track-men,  who,  as 
a  general  thing,  imagine  that  if  the  surface  of  the 
rail  is  clear,  and  passenger  trains  make  time,  and  if 
frieghts  are  not  very  much  behind,  the  track  is  all 
right.  They  do  not  consider  that  the  passenger  en- 
gine which  has  passed  them  with  such  apparent  ease 
is  using  a  large  amount  of  fuel  in  excess  of  the  ordi- 
nary quantity,  or  they  do  not  notice  that  the  freight 
trains  are  running  with  several  cars  less  than  their 
usual  number,  on  account  of  the  flange  being  full  of 
snow  and  ice.  It  is  no  excuse  for  to-day  that  the 
flanges  were  cleared  out  yesterday ,  for  when  there  is 
snow  on  the  ground,  it  is  constantly  sifting  along  and 


DEVICES    OF    CLEARING    FLANGE-WAYS.  105 

drifting  into  the  flange-way,  where  it  is  soon  packed 
into  ice  by  passing  trains,  and  makes  hard  traveling. 
Some  roads  in  the  country  have  an  apparatus  attached 
to  the  front  of  the  locomotive  or  under  a  car  for  clear- 
ing flanges  as  the  train  passes  along.  This  is  a  relief 
to  track-men,  and,  if  the  contrivance  works  well,  it  is 
equally  beneficial  to  train-men  and  profitable  to  the 
company.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to  operate  such 
appliances  successfully,  on  account  of  the  liability  of 
the  scraper  to  catch  on  chairs,  frogs,  crossing-planks, 
etc.  There  is  in  use  on  some  roads  a  very  efficient 
contrivance  that  can  be  raised  on  approaching  cross- 
ings, etc.,  but  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  raising  it  at 
the  proper  time,  it  has  not  come  into  general  use. 
In  most  cases,  track-men  cannot  make  better  use  of 
their  time  in  winter  than  in  clearing  the  flanges,  and 
by  doing  this  thoroughly  they  may  save  the  company 
a  handsome  sum  out  of  current  expenses. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

A  WORD   TO   SUPERINTENDENTS  AND  ROAD- 
MASTERS. 

INEXPERIENCED  SUPERINTENDENTS  APT  TO  APPOINT  IN- 
EFFICIENT ROAD-MASTERS  —  ROAD-MASTERS  NEED  A 
PRACTICAL  KNOWLEDGE  OF  DETAILS  IN  REPAIRS— THEIR 
DUTIES  OFTEN  TOO  MULTIFARIOUS — SECTION-MASTERS 
NEED  MINUTE  INSTRUCTION— RIDING  IN  "PALACE  CARS" 
—ROAD-MASTERS  AS  LIKELY  TO  INJURE  THE  ROAD  BY 
ZEAL  FOR  ECONOMY  AS  BY  EXTRAVAGANCE— As  A  CLASS 

THEY  ABE  NOT  OVER-WILLING  TO  BE  INSTRUCTED. 

THERE  are  many  railroad  superintendents  who  owe 
their  appointments,  not  to  their  experience  in  any 
capacity  as  railroad  men,  but  to  a  financial  interest 
in  the  road,  or  through  the  favor  of  their  stockhold- 
ing friends.  These  gentlemen  frequently  make  poor 
selections  in  the  choice  of  men  to  act  as  road-masters. 
They  very  naturally  suppose  that  any  one  who  has 
been  found  capable  of  acting  as  engineer  or  engi- 
neer's assistant  will  make  a  good  road-master,  and  to 
a  certain  extent  this  supposition  is  correct.  There 
are,  however,  very  few  men  whose  experience  has 
been  limited  to  engineering  who  make  good  road-mas- 


THE    SELECTION    OF    ROAD-MASTERS.  107 

ters,  because  they  have  had  no  opportunity  to  observe 
the  many  important  details  of  repairs,  which  they 
must  leave  to  the  section-masters.  These,  as  a  class, 
do  not  take  as  much  interest  in  the  matter  as  they 
should  and  generally  depend  on  the  road-master  for 
instructions ;  and  it  is  therefore  important  that  those 
who  act  in  the  latter  capacity  should  be  men  whose 
practical  experience  enables  them  to  instruct  section- 
masters  in  all  matters  in  their  line  of  duty.  When 
railroad  building  was  in  its  infancy,  or  rather  in  its 
".teens,"  there  was  a  lack  of  experienced  railroad 
men  and  many  companies  were  forced  to  employ  in- 
competent and  inexperienced  persons.  Now,  however, 
the  case  is  different,  and  notwithstanding  there  are  so 
many  miles  of  road  now  in  course  of  construction  in 
this  country,  the  supply  of  good  men  in  any  capacity  is 
more  plentiful  than  ever  before.  It  is  not  difficult  at 
the  present  day  to  procure  a  first-class  man  as  road- 
master,  and  as  the  superintendent  has  no  more  important 
assistant  than  that  functionary,  it  is  important  that  he 
should  be  very  careful  in  making  the  appointment. 
It  is  also  important,  when  a  superintendent  has 
secured  a  good  road-master,  that  he  should  not  burden 
him  with  too  many  responsibilities.  He  is  frequently 
expected  to  act  as  conductor  of  a  gravel  or  wood  train, 
as  wood  agent,  agent  for  the  supply  of  bridge,  and 
fencing  timber  and  lumber,  besides  a  host  of  other 


108  INEFFICIENCY    OF    ROAD-MASTERS. 

duties,  which  he  cannot  perform  without  neglecting 
important  matters  on  the  track.  A  superintendent 
should. never  require  a  road-master  to  perform  any 
service  unconnected  with  track  repairs  if  it  can  be 
avoided.  The  business  of  road-master,  if  performed 
thoroughly,  requires  the  constant  attention  of  a  wide- 
awake, energetic  man,  and  it  is  not  economy  to  re- 
quire him  to  perform  many  duties  outside  of  his  de- 
partment. A  man  who  has  had  practical  experience 
on  track  repairs,  first  as  a  common  laborer,  then  as  a 
second  hand,  and  finally  as  section-master,  and  who 
has  keen  observation  and  business  tact,  will  make  a 
better  road-master  than  one  who  is  a  professional  en- 
gineer with  no  other  qualifications. 

Road-masters  are  not  generally  careful  enough  to 
give  full  instruction  to  section-masters ;  and  whatever 
particular  is  thus  overlooked  by  the  former  is  apt  to 
be  left  undone  by  the  latter,  much  to  the  disadvantage 
of  the  company. 

It  is  too  much  the  practice  of  road-masters  to  do  a 
great  part  of  their  business  in  the  office,  or  while  rid- 
ing in  a  Pullman  palace  car  from  one  end  of  the  road 
to  the  other.  There  are  a  great  many  roads  having 
elegant  cars,  gilded  in  the  highest  style  of  art,  running 
over  track  that  is  in  a  wretched  condition,  owing,  in  a 
great  measure,  to  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  road- 
master.  It  is  not,  of  course,  always  the  fault  of  the 


DUTIES    OF    ROAD-MASTERS.  109 

road-master  that  the  track  is  in  a  bad  condition,  be- 
cause sometimes  when  the  ties  are  decayed  and  require 
removal,  the  superintendent  will  not  furnish  the  nec- 
essary material  for  repairs  in  the  way  of  new  ties  or 
iron,  and  the  road-master  is  consequently  restricted 
in  the  performance  of  his  duty. 

But  perhaps  no  greater  cause  can  be  assigned  for 
the  bad  condition  of  railroad  track  throughout  the 
country  than  the  desire  on  the  part  of  the  road- 
master  to  make  his  account  as  light  as  possible.  It 
is  not  expected  that  a  road-master  will  either  freely 
use  the  company's  money  to  build  up  his  own  reputa- 
tion, or  that  he  will  practice  economy  to  such  an  ex- 
tent as  to  injure  the  road  ;  but  it  is  sometimes  the 
case  that  he  has  full  permission  to  order  all  the  mate- 
rial he  may  think  necessary,  and  he  will  now  and 
then  abuse  this  privilege.  That  is  to  say,  he  will  or- 
der more  new  ties  or  iron  than  are  really  necessary, 
for  the  sake  of  establishing  a  reputation  as  a  first-class 
road-master,  which  reputation  is  gained  at  the  com- 
pany's expense.  There  are  others  who  take  a  differ- 
ent view  of  the  matter,  and,  seeking  to  gain  a  name 
for  economy,  do  not  order  as  many  ties  or  as  much 
iron  as  are  really  necessary  for  the  good  of  the  com- 
pany. These  extreme  practices  have  a  common  object 
in  view,  viz.,  to  make  the  reputation  of  road-masters, 
while  both  are  fatal  to  the  interests  of  the  companies. 


110  DUTIES    OF    ROAD-MASTERS. 

A  section-master  cannot  be  expected  to  keep  track 
in  good  order  without  being  supplied  with  the  neces- 
sary material,  and  when  that  supply  is  furnished  it 
should  be  the  business  of  the  road-master  to  see  that 
such  material  is  properly  used.  If  he  has  any  section- 
master  who  does  not  thoroughly  understand  how  to 
use  the  material  properly,  he  should  give  as  much 
of  his  time  as  possible  to  the  instruction  of  such  sec- 
tion-master and  the  supervision  of  his  work. 

Road-masters  may  gain  valuable  information  by 
reading  what  others  have  to  say,  who  have  had  op- 
portunity to  observe  the  various  effects  of  certain  prac- 
tices in  track  repairs.  Perhaps  it  may  not  sound 
well  to  say  that  road-masters,  as  a  class,  are  the 
most  stubborn  of  all  classes  of  railroad  men  in  their 
unwillingness  to  receive  instruction  from  '  others. 
Such,  however,  is  the  case.  But  while  some  never 
try  to  learn,  and  some  cannot  learn  if  they  try,  there 
are  others  (let  us  hope  the  number  is  increasing)  who 
can  and  do  profit  by  what  they  read. 

The  most  important  points  connected  with  track  re- 
pairs have  now  been  discussed.  There  are,  however, 
other  matters  connected  with  the  operation  that  need 
attention,  and  a  few  words  on  the  subject  will  be 
sufficient  to  give  some  section-masters  or  track-men 
generally  some  ideas  that  may  be.  new  to  them  and 
valuable  to  the  company. 


TO    SECTION-MASTERS.  Ill 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  side-ties  are  often  im- 
properly laid.  Here  is  an  important  subject  for  the 
consideration  of  the  section-master.  It  is  the  cus- 
tom with  most  section-masters  to  run  a  hand  car  over 
their  track  day  after  day  and  when  they  come  to  a 
bad  joint  to  stop  and  "  fix  it ;  "  and  there  are  certain 
joints  that  require  "  fixing "  every  day.  This  is,  as" 
before  stated,  owing  to  the  position  of  the  side-ties. 
The  proper  way  to  avoid  this  every-day  tinkering 
is  to  dig  away  the  gravel,  draw  the  spikes,  and  put 
the  misplaced  ties  in  proper  position  ;  and  this  meth- 
od is  true  economy,  for  the  common  practice  has  cost 
many  a  railroad  company  thousands  of  dollars  which 
might  have  been  saved  by  better  management. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

ON  FIEE  AND  WATER  AS  ENEMIES — ALSO  ON 
PKESEBVING  FENCES. 

WASHING  ATVAY  OF  EMBANKMENTS— INSTANCE  OF  NEGLECT 
AND  ITS  CONSEQUENCES — VIGILANCE  NEEDED  AT  THE  SEA- 
SON OF  FRESHETS — DUTY  OF  SECTION-MASTERS — POWER  OF 
WATER  NOT  FULLY  REALIZED  BY  SECTION-MEN—ACTION 
OF  WATER  IN  DEEP  CUTTINGS— SURFACE  DITCHES— HAND- 
CAR PRACTICE— FIRES  :  BURNING  WASTE  ;  BRIDGE-BURN- 
ING, AND  ITS  CAUSES — BREAKS  IN  FENCES  MAY  BE  HIDDEN 
BY  WEEDS— FALLING  TREES— DANGER  OF  LEAVING  FENCES 
BROKEN. 

IN  many  sections  of  the  country  the  nature  of  the 
soil  is  such  that  a  sudden  fall  of  rain  will  frequent- 
ly wash  away  the  embankments ;  and  many  a  frightful 
accident  has  occurred  in  consequence  of  a  rain  fall 
which  the  section-master  has  not  regarded  as  at  all 
dangerous.  But  in  no  case  are  vigilance  and 
promptness  more  needed.  Even  in  the  night-time, 
if  a  section-master  is  awakened  by  a  sudden  and  se- 
vere storm,  it  is  best  for  him  to  bestir  himself,  and 
look  over  his  track  before  any  train  is  due.  The 
writer  once  cautioned  a  section-master  to  look  closely 


CARE   QF   ROAD-BEDS.  113 

to  an  embankment  composed  mostly  of  sand,  in  which 
a  drenching  rain  had  made  a  small  channel,  and  which 
it  was  rapidly  undermining ;  and  by  reason  of  his 
giving  no  heed  to  the  warning  a  whole  train  was 
wrecked,  with  a  loss  of  several  lives  and  several  thou- 
sand dollars'  damage  to  property.  This  is  not  men- 
tioned as  a  solitary  instance  of  the  kind,  because 
occurrences  of  this  kind  are  frequent  at  some  seasons 
of  the  year.  Within  a  few  years  a  station  building 
on  a  New  England  road  was  washed  entirely  from  its 
foundation,  and  an  excavation  one  hundred  feet  in 
depth  was  made  on  the  site  of  the  building.  This 
was  done  in  less  than  an  hour's  time.  Such  an  oc- 
currrence,  though  an  extreme  case,  may,  nevertheless, 
serve  as  a  warning. 

Care  of  Road-Bed  in   Freshets. 

Attentive  readers  of  the  daily  papers  cannot  fail  to 
notice  the  frequent  occurrence  of  frightful  accidents 
at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  caused  by  the  sudden 
washing  away,  or  undermining,  of  embankments.  It 
will  be  seen,  however,  that  these  do  not  take  place  so 
often  in  the  spring  and  fall  of  the  year,  when  freshets 
and  storms  prevail,  because  at  such  periods  all  hands 
are  on  the  watch.  Section-masters  are  more  vigilant ; 
engineers  run  their  trains  with  greater  caution  ;  brake- 
men,  instead  of  taking  the  most  comfortable  vacant 


114  CARE    OF    ROAD-BEDS. 

seat  they  can  find,  sit  astride  the  brake-wheel,  ready 
for  action  at  the  first  signal  of  danger.  It  is  in  mid- 
summer, when  the  rough  spring  weather  is  over,  and 
the  usual  spring  freshets  have  passed,  that  some  of 
the  worst  accidents  on  record  have  happened.  These 
are  attributable  to  the  sudden  and  severe  storms 
which  are  frequently  experienced  in  this  country, 
crossing  it  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic.  It  is  not 
pleasant  for  a  railroad  man  to  take  a  hand  car,  or 
go  on  foot,  over  several  miles  of  track  in  a  severe 
storm ;  but  every  section-master  should  bear  in  mind 
that  at  such  times  his  services  are  most  valuable 
to  the  company.  It  is  his  duty  to  make  exami- 
nations, especially  of  those  portions  of  road-bed 
which  he  may  have  reason  to  believe  most  liable- 
to  damage  by  the  storm ;  for,  of  course  there  are 
places  on  every  railroad  that  are  more  likely  to 
be  affected  by  storms  than  others.  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  the  average  section -master  is  not 
aware  of  the  power  of  water,  and  does  not  real- 
ize the  damage  that  may  be  done  in  a  short  time 
by  even  a  small  quantity  of  water  when  condi- 
tions favor  its  action.  Miners  in  California  use 
water  to  tear  down  mountains,  and,  if  properly  ap- 
plied, a  very  small  quantity  accomplishes  great  re- 
sults. Of  course  they  use  artificial  means  to  bring 
the  water  to  bear  with  its  greatest  force ;  but  ua- 


ACTION    OF    WATER    IN    DEEP    CUTTINGS.         115 

ture  has  her  means  too,  which  are  ample,  in  given 
circumstances,  to  invest  water  with  terrible  powers  of 
destruction. 

For  example  :  In  heavy  cuttings  serious  accidents 
have  occurred  by  the  undermining  of  boulders  and 
huge  rocks,  by  the  action  of  a  very  small  quantity  of 
water  in  a  short  time. 

There  is  a  road  in  this  country  which  occupies  an 
enviable  position  on  the  list  of  first-class  roads, 
and  yet  has  had  its  full  share  of  disaster ;  and 
the  action  of  water  in  deep  cuttings  has  been  to 
it  the  greatest  cause  of  danger  and  damage.  All 
roads  in  mountainous  districts  are  more  or  less 
troubled  in  the  same  way,  yet  some  companies,  by 
taking  proper  preventive  measures,  have  suffered  com- 
paratively little. 

Surface  ditches  are  probably  the  best  safeguards 
against  the  danger  under  remark  ;  and  it  is  strange 
that  they  are  not  more  generally  used  for  that  pur- 
pose. A  surface  ditch  is  one  that  is  dug  on  the  top 
of  the  slope,  but  at  a  sufficient  distance  from  its  edge 
to  prevent  the  water  in  it  from  breaking  through  and 
rushing  down  the  slope.  It  is  not  expensive,  the 
protection  it  gives  to  track  is  considerable,  and  track- 
men should  see  that  one  is  dug  in  all  places  where 
it  may  be  needed. 


116  THE    PREVENTION    OF    FIRES. 

Hand-Car  Practice — Fires. 

When  section-men  are  passing  over  the  road  with 
a  hand-car,  going  to  or  from  work,  they  do  not  usual- 
ly take  as  much  notice  of  matters  along  the  way  as 
they  should,  especially  in  regard  to  fire.  Careless 
firemen  frequently  throw  overboard  handfuls  of  dirty 
waste,  which  at  any  time  may  be  ignited  by  a  spark 
from  a  passing  locomotive.  Hence  the  fire  may  be 
carried  into  the  dry  grass  by  the  roadside,  afterwards 
into  the  fence,  and  soon  to  the  hay-stacks,  buildings, 
wood-piles,  etc.  There  are  certain  times  in  the  year 
when  such  accidents  are  more  likely  to  occur  than  at 
others,  and  much  property  is  destroyed  in  that  way, 
which,  with  proper  attention,  might  have  been  pre- 
served. I  do  not  undertake  to  say  that  all  fires  of 
this  nature  may  be  prevented;  but  it  is  notorious 
that  track-men  frequently  pass  handfuls  of  burning 
waste,  or  a  stump  that  has  caught  fire  from  a  spark, 
without  deeming  it  worthy  of  notice.  Now,  when  a 
gang  of  track-men  engaged  at  work  discover  a  smoke 
on  a  line,  they  should  at  once  attend  to  it ;  and  it 
should  be  a  rule  at  all  times  never  to  neglect  the 
least  indication  thai  a  fire  has  caught  on  the  line. 
On  more  than  one  occasion  expensive  bridges  have 
been  destroyed,  owing  to  the  section-men's  neglect 
to  stop  the  hand-car  and  remove  a  live  coal  of  fire 


THE    PREVENTION    OF    FIRES.  117 

dropped  by  a  locomotive,  or  to  put  out  a  fire  caused 
by  a  spark  from  a  smoke-stack  lodging  in  a  decayed 
spot  of  timber.  It  is  well  known  that  a  bridge  may 
be  perfectly  safe  in  regard  to  the  soundness  of  its 
timbers,  and  yet  have  a  small  knot  partially  decayed, 
or  "  punky,  "  as  it  is  termed.  This  does  not  impair 
the  strength  of  the  timber  to  any  great  extent,  but 
it  is  extremely  combustible  and  may  be  ignited 
by  a  single  spark ;  and  when  the  fire  has  "once 
caught,  it  may  remain  for  days  unnoticed.  Then 
all  at  once,  when  the  wind  is  right,  the  entire 
structure  may  be  consumed  in  a  few  moments.  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  bridge-burning  does  not  nec- 
essarily show  neglect  on  the  part  of  track-men ; 
for,  as  above  stated,  fire  may  remain  a  long  time  in 
the  timber  without  being  discovered,  and  at  last 
spread  too  rapidly  to  be  checked.  All  these  are 
exceptional  cases. 

It  is  a  good  plan  for  the  track-men  to  examine 
bridges  in  dry  weather,  every  time  they  cross.  On 
some  bridges  that  have  cost  large  sums  and  are  in 
exposed  places  watchmen  are  employed  night  and 
day,  yet,  even  with  this  precaution,  many  expen- 
sive bridges  have  been  destroyed  by  fire.  Small 
bridges,  and  stringers  on  culverts,  etc  ,  need  watch- 
ing as  much  as  larger  structures;  as  not  unfre- 
quently  a  coal  or  spark  may  drop  on  a  stringer  or 


118  BRIDGE-BURNING FENCES. 

rail-plate,  and  so  burn  it  as  to  cause  a  train  to 
fall  through.  Some  of  the  worst  wrecks  on  record 
have  been  taken  out  of  culverts  where  a  stringer 
has  been  nearly  burned  through.  Fire  and  water 
are  admirable  servants  to  railroad  men,  but  if  not 
watched  narrowly  they  are  apt  to  prove  their  worst 
enemies. 

Fences. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  track-men 
should  note  well  the  condition  of  fences.  In  some 
places  these  are  so  overrun  with  weeds  and  under- 
brush that  a  serious  break  may  be  hidden  from 
a  careless  eye ;  and,  in  fact,  it  is  too  often  over- 
looked. In  other  cases  a  rail  will  be  knocked  off 
the  fence,  or  a  break  be  made  by  a  fallen  tree ; 
and  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  such  damages 
go  from  day  to  day  unrepaired,  giving  cattle  an 
opportunity  to  get  on  the  track.  Now  when  cattle 
are  pastured  alongside  of  a  railroad,  they  are  tempted 
by  the  good  growth  of  grass  across  the  fence,  and 
are  generally  more  apt  than  the  track-men  to  no- 
tice a  break  in  the  fence.  Surely  it  is  far  better 
lo  stop  a  hand-car  and  repair  a  fence,  than  to  sub- 
ject a  company  to  damages  for  killing  stock,  with 
the  additional  expense,  occasionally,  of  a  wrecked 
train. 


PRESERVATION    OF    FENCES.  119 

In  a  word,  men  when  passing  over  the  road  with 
a  hand-car  should  keep  their  eyes  open,  and  be 
prompt  to  remedy  every  defect  they  discover.  It 
should  be  a  rule  never  to  postpone  any  work  of  re- 
pairs that  can  be  done  on  the  instant. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 
ON  RAILROAD   ACCIDENTS. 

PREVENTABLE  AND  NON-PREVENTABLE  ACCIDENTS— ILLUS- 
TRATED NEWSPAPER  CRITICS— A  WORD  TO  NEWSPAPER 
MEN — WHAT  ACCIDENTS  MAY  BE  CLASSED  AS  UNAVOIDA- 
BLE—COLLISIONS :  FROM  BREAKING  OF  CAR-COUPLINGS  ; 
FROM  MISUNDERSTANDING  BY  TRAIN-MEN  ;  BETWEEN 
GRAVEL  AND  PASSENGER  TRAINS— CHEAP  AND  IGNORANT 
FOREIGN  LABOR — PROMPT  USE  OF  LIGHTS — NARRATIVE  OF 
A  COLLISION — BROKEN  (USUALLY  CHEAP)  AXLES—CRACKED 
WHEELS— BROKEN  RAILS— WHO  is  BLAMEWORTHY— MIS- 
PLACED SWITCHES— FALSE  ECONOMY— CONCLUSION. 

To  say  that  all  railroad  accidents  might  be  pre- 
vented would  be  to  make  a  rash  assertion ;  but  to  say 
that  a  large  portion  of  them  might  be  avoided  would 
not  be  extravagant.  When  railroad  accidents  are 
classified,  it  is  seen  that  there  are  some  classes,  all, 
or  nearly  all,  of  which  might  be  prevented  by  means 
within  the  power  or  every  railroad  company.  And 
there  is  one  class  at  least  which  it  would  seem  cannot 
be  prevented  by  any  human  power  or  forethought. 
In  the  latter  class  may  be  reckoned,  in  the  present 
state  of  our  knowledge,  such  as  are  caused  by  sudden 


UNAVOIDABLE    ACCIDENTS.  121 

and  severe  storms,  which  tear  away  embankments  or 
precipitate  rocks  and  earth  upon  the  track  in  deep  cut- 
tings or  on  mountain  sides.  This  class  of  accidents 
has  been  incidentally  mentioned  when  cautioning 
track-men  to  be  vigilant  in  case  of  storms,  and  pre- 
vent accidents  as  far  as  possible  by  giving  warning  to 
trains  in  case  of  danger.  There  are,  however,  cases 
when  it  would  seem  that  the  utmost  vigilance  on  the 
part  of  track-men  would  not  prevent  disaster.  Many 
times  men  have  been  sent  over  the  road  to  see  that 
all  was  safe,  just  before  a  train  was  due  ;  yet,  during 
the  short  space  of  time  between  their  passing  a  cer- 
tain point  and  finding  it  safe  and  the  time  for  the  ar- 
rival of  the  train  at  that  point,  a  violent  storm  has 
swept  away  the  track,  and  the  train  has  been  precip- 
itated into  an  awful  chasm.  Accidents  of  this  kind 
are  not  unfrequent,  and  there  does  not  seem  to  be 
any  way  of  preventing  them  except  by  stationing  men 
along  the  line  in  places  where  such  accidents  might 
occur,  to  warn  trains  of  danger.  This  has  been,  and 
continues  to  be,  the  practice  on  some  roads ;  yet,  not- 
withstanding the  precaution,  such  accidents  have  still 
occurred.  The  illustrated  newspapers  have  interested 
the  public  on  many  occasions  with  engravings  of 
these  frightful  disasters,  taken  from  a  sketch  made 
on  the  spot  by  "our  special  artist."  These  illus- 
trations are  usually  accompanied  by  very  minute  de- 


122  UNAVOIDABLE    ACCIDENTS. 

scriptions  of  the  catastrophe,  and  generally  wind  up 
by  assuming  gross  carelessness  on  the  part  of  some 
one,  and  charging  the  officers  of  the  road  with  neglect 
of  their  duties. 

The  daily  papers  of  the  country  have  of  late,  and 
indeed  for  years  past,  been  very  severe  on  the  rail- 
road managers  in  their  accounts  of  what  they  usually 
term  "  the  last  railroad  murder.  "  In  many  cases 
such  language  is  hardly  too  severe ;  for  although  it 
would  not  be  fair  to  suppose  that  any  railroad  man- 
ager would  deliberately  subject  himself  to  so  serious 
a  charge,  yet  the  frequency  of  accidents  on  some  roads 
makes  it  clear  that  there  is  far  too  little  regard  for  hu- 
man life  or  the  interest  of  the  road.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  would  be  well  for  newspaper  men  to  bear  in 
mind  that  in  railroad  operations,  as  in  every  other 
business,  accidents  will  happen  in  spite  of  every  effort 
to  prevent  them  ;  and  in  such  cases  it  serves  no  worthy 
purpose  to  occupy  two  or  three  columns  in  abusing 
the  manager  of  a  railroad.  All  such  disasters  as  are 
caused  by  act  of  Providence,  of  course,  cannot  be 
prevented  by  any  human  agency,  and  no  one  should 
be  blamed  for  them.  Among  these  may  be  classed 
such  as  are  caused  by  tornadoes,  lightning,  and  those 
sudden  and  awful  rain  storms  that  sometimes  visit  va- 
rious parts  of  the  country  and  destroy  hundreds  of 
feet  of  enbankment  in  a  few  moments.  Fires  may, 


WIIAT    ACCIDENTS    ARE    UNAVOIDABLE.  123 

under  some  circumstances,  be  properly  put  into  this 
class  of  accidents ;  so  may,  in  some  measure,  the 
breaking  of  wheels,  axles,  etc.,  which  can  not  always 
be  avoided.  Although  these  may  have  been  selected 
with  great  care,  and  thoroughly  tested  in  regard  to 
their  strength,  they  will  at  times  give  way  without  any 
apparent  cause.  There  are  other  accidents  of  a  kin- 
dred nature  which  may  also  be  classed  as  unavoidable, 
such  as  the  breaking  of  car-couplings,  for  instance. 
It  is  generally  the  custom  to  make  car-couplings  of 
sufficient  strength  to  withstand  a  much  heavier  strain 
than  they  are  ever  expected  to  be  subjected  to.  This 
is  done  as  a  measure  of  safety,  and  the  idea  is 
correct;  but  the  constant  friction  to  which  the  links 
are  exposed  will,  after  a  time,  wear  and  weaken  them 
to  such  an  extent  that  they  frequently  fail  to  bear  the 
strain  imposed  upon  them.  Trains  have  parted  while 
ascending  a  heavy  grade,  when,  if  there  had  been  no 
brakemen  on  the  detached  cars,  they  would  of  course 
have  run  back  down  the  incline.  And  sometimes  a 
collision  has  occurred  with  a  following  train.  These 
accidents  have  been  rather  more  numerous  than  is 
generally  supposed.  Formerly  they  were  more  fre- 
quent than  now,  as  it  is  a  general  rule  on  all  roads  to 
station  a  brakeman  on  the  rear  car  to  prevent  them. 
This  precaution  does  not  always  suffice,  for  the  reason 
that  there  are  often  so  many  cars  on  the  detached 


124  COLLISIONS. 

portion  of  the  train  that  one  brakeraan  can  not  con- 
trol them,  and  if  the  train  following  has  been  running 
a  little  closer  to  the  train  ahead  than  the  orders  allow, 
a  collision  is  the  result.  This  may  be  attributed  to 
mere  carelessness,  and  sometimes  at  least  the  charge 
would  be  fairly  made.  A  rear  brakeman,  by  leaving 
his  post  for  a  short  time  to  have  a  friendly  chat  with 
his  next  brakeman,  has  been  the  immediate  cause  of 
such  mischief.  But  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that 
a  coupling  link  works  the  pin  out  when  the  train  is  on 
a  descending  grade,  and  thus  the  train  is  divided. 
This  can  not  fairly  be  charged  to  carelessness ;  for  no 
amount  of  care  and  attention  would  prevent  the  pos- 
sibility of  the  pin  working  out,  though  it  might  pre- 
vent serious  consequences  ensuing.  The  breaking  of 
links  is  in  most  cases  due  to  their  becoming  much 
worn,  bent  and  twisted,  and  thereby  rendered  unsafe. 
Doubtless  many  accidents  are  caused  by  the  use  of 
links  in  this  condition.  As  soon  as  a  link  shows  the 
least  sign  of  weakness  it  should  be  laid  aside. 

These  accidents,  though  occurring  in  many  different 
ways,  may  be  generally  classed  as  avoidable.  Yet  it 
is  at  times  extremely  difficult  to  say  who  is  to  blame 
and  how  much.  A  misunderstanding  between  train- 
men and  others  interested  in  the  running  of  trains  is 
the  most  common  cause  of  collision  ;  and  when  this  is 
made  apparent,  and  all  parties  are  found  to  have  acted 


COLLISIONS    CAUSED    BY    CARELESSNESS.      125 

in  good  faith,  it  seems  hard  to  censure  anybody.  Yet 
it  would  seem  that  either  the  rules  of  the  road  must 
be  defective,  or  the  persons  employed  to  carry  them 
out  deficient  in  the  necessary  intelligence  and  care- 
fulness. 

At  the  present  day,  however,  such  accidents  are  less 
frequent  than  formerly,  There  are  obvious  reasons 
for  this,  which  will  be  apparent  to  any  railroad  man 
on  giving  the  matter  a  little  thought. 

There  is  now  and  then  an  account  in  the  newspapers 
of  a  frightful  collision  on  some  of  the  old  roads;  but 
this  class  of  accidents  is  mostly  confined  to  new  roads, 
where  no  regular  system  of  operating  has  yet  been  es- 
tablished, and  where  ballast  trains,  etc.,  are  running, 
which  are  very  likely  to  be  out  of  time,  or  directly  in 
the  way  when  regular  trains  are  due.  With  few  ex- 
ceptions, the  most  frequent  and  destructive  collisions 
have  occurred  on  new  roads,  between  gravel  and  regu- 
lar trains,  owing  to  the  former  blocking  up  the  road. 
This  is  no  "inscrutable  dispensation,"  bat  the  result 
of  sheer  carelessness.  Any  accident  that  is  caused  by 
ignorance  or  neglect,  is,  of  course,  of  the  avoidable 
kind.  If  railroad  superintendents  would  exercise 
more  caution  in  the  selection  or  appointment  of  men 
to  responsible  positions  (and  what  position  is  not  a  re- 
sponsible one?)  there  would  be  fewer  collisions.  It 
has  become  the  custom  of  late,  with  most  railroad 


126  COLLISIONS — "ECONOMICAL  MANAGEMENT." 

companies,  to  put  a  certain  class  of  foreigners  to  per- 
form duties  which,  for  the  profitable  management  of 
the  business,  require  more  intelligence  than  they  gen- 
erally possess.  There  are  men  of  this  sort  in  charge 
of  working  trains,  on  many  roads,  who  can  scarcely 
tell  the  time  by  a  watch.  This  is  a  specimen  of  the 
"economy"  before  mentioned,  and  probably  no  one 
has  practiced  this  kind  of  economy  for  any  length  of 
time  without  furnishing  ample  evidence  to  condemn  it, 
and  to  show  the  importance  of  putting  none  but  in- 
telligent, wide-awake  men  in  charge  of  working 
trains. 

In  regard  to  collisions  commonly  viewed  as  un- 
avoidable, many  have  no  doubt  occurred  in  time  of 
heavy  fog,  when,  in  a  clear  night,  a  light  might  have 
been  seen  a  sufficient  distance  to  prevent  accident — 
such  for  instance,  as  a  hind  train  running  into  a  pre- 
ceding one  which  had  broken  down.  Of  course,  if 
the  leading  train,  on  meeting  with  an  accident,  were 
to  send  a  light  back  far  enough,  it  would  prevent  col- 
lision, if  the  light  could  be  seen  at  all ;  but  when  a 
following  train  runs  rather  close  to  the  leading  one, 
there  would  hardly  be  time,  after  a  serious  accident, 
to  send  a  light  back  far  enough  to  prevent  a  collision. 
There  are  various  ways  in  which  a  collision  might  oc- 
cur during  a  fog,  which  would  be  avoided  in  clear 
weather. 


COLLISIONS    WILL    OCCUR AN    INSTANCE.        127 

There  is  a  well  managed  road  in  one  of  the  Mid- 
dle States  which  was  in  operation  for  twenty  years 
without  having  to  record  a  single  accident  to  trains  or 
injury  to  passengers.  Then  came  a  terrible  collision, 
partly  in  consequence  of  a  misunderstanding,  and 
partly  because  of  a  thick  fog  which  was  prevailing  at 
the  time.  It  was  usual,  when  an  express  train  ar- 
rived at  the  terminal  station,  for  another  fast  train  to 
pull  out  and  go  over  the  road  in  an  opposite  direction. 
Four  miles  from  the  terminal  station  was  another  sta- 
tion, where,  on  certain  occasions,  if  the  train  coming 
in  was  a  little  late,  the  two  trains  would  meet.  On 
the  occasion  referred  to,  the  train  coming  in  was  only 
a  trifle  late,  so  it  was  concluded  to  proceed  to  the 
next  station.  The  conductor  of  the  train  going  out  had 
by  some  means  got  the  idea  that  he  was  to  meet  the 
in-coming  train  at  the  station  before  mentioned,  and 
the  conductor  of  the  last  mentioned  train  understood 
that  he  was  to  reach  the  terminal  station  as  soon  as 
possible.  In  consequence,  the  trains  met  with  a  fear- 
ful crash.  As  the  engineer  of  each  train  was  making 
his  best  time  to  get  to  the  station  ahead  of  him,  be- 
fore the  other  train  came  out,  the  trains  were  running 
at  a  high  velocity,  yet,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  the, loss 
of  life  was  but  trifling,  compared  to  that  occasioned 
by  similar  accidents  elsewhere ;  although  both  trains 
were  completely  wrecked,  involving  a  severe  loss  to 


128  ON    PREVENTING    ACCIDENTS. 

the  company.  In  this  case  it  was  argued  that  the  con- 
ductors of  both  trains  were  to  blame,  yet  they  were 
guided  by  exactly  the  rules  which  they  had  been  prac- 
ticing for  years  with  success.  The  main  point  in  the 
argument  for  the  defense  was  the  fog.  It  is  doubt- 
ful, under  the  circumstances,  whether  those  trains 
could  have  been  run  even  in  a  clear  day,  at  the  same 
velocity,  without  coming  in  contact.  But  putting 
aside  this  question,  the  instance  is  given  to  show  that 
accidents  of  the  kind  will  occur  in  spite  of  all  pre- 
cautions to  prevent  them. 

It  has  been  shown  that  there  are  certain  accidents 
which  happen  in  the  common  course  of  events,  and  for 
which  no  blame  can  be  rightfully  laid  upon  any  one. 
There  seems,  however,  to  be  an  almost  imperceptible 
line  of  division  between  such  disasters  and  those  that 
are  the  result  of  carelessness. 

But  admitting  that  there  are  many  and  various  ways 
in  which  a  railroad  train  may  come  to  grief,  for  which 
there  is  no  apparent  remedy;  there  are  many  cases 
where  the  ounce  of  prevention,  which  is  better  than 
a  pound  of  cure,  may  be  applied  to  good  advantage. 

On  some  roads,  broken  axles  seem  to  be  a  more 
prevalent  disease  than  on  others,  and  this  is  owing, 
doubtless,  to  the  managers  working  on  the  pound  of 
cure  plan.  That  is,  they  wish  to  economize,  and  do 
so  by  purchasing  cheap  axles,  which  keep  them  in  con- 


WHEELS,  AXLES    AND    RAILS.  129 

stant  trouble  by  their  frequent  failures.  The  verdict : 
"  Caused  by  a  broken  axle,"  is  often  rendered  of  late, 
and  this  class  of  accidents  is  not  diminishing,  but  con- 
tinues to  be  alarmingly  frequent  Car  wheels  have 
been  greatly  improved  within  a  short  time,  and  acci- 
dents from  broken  wheels  appear  to  be  less  frequent 
than  in  the  early  days  of  railroading  in  this  country  ; 
yet,  in  some  instances,  cracked  wheels  have  been  run 
a  little  too  long,  and  have  occasioned  damage.  Mis- 
chief has  arisen  from  running  a  wheel  which  has  had 
a  piece  broken  out  of  its  flange  ;  and,  indeed,  it  is 
not  strange  that  accidents  are  frequent  on  some  roads 
where  little  attention  is  paid  to  defective  wheels  and 
axles. 

Some  of  the  worst  accidents  have  been  caused  by 
broken  rails.  In  most  cases  this  is  the  result  of  care- 
lessness on  the  part  of  track-men.  In  others,  the 
managers  are  at  fault  for  not  providing  iron  to  replace 
that  which  has  become  dangerous  by  being  battered 
and  worn.  Battered  iron  requires  constant  attention 
to  keep  it  in  a  safe  condition,  and  the  least  neglect  on 
the  part  of  any  one  connected  with  replacing  or  repair- 
ing rails  may  have  serious  consequences.  The  break- 
ing of  a  sound  rail  is  a  rare  occurrence.  Most  acci- 
dents happen  on  roads  where  the  iron  is  known  to  be 
unsound,  and  all  such  accidents  can  be  avoided.  It 
is  true  that,  in  frosty  localities,  rails  sometimes  break 
9 


130   RUNNING  OFF  AT  SWITCHES TYLER'S  SWITCH. 

which  were  supposed  to  be  safe,  but  even  here  it  is 
usually  the  unsound  rails  which  give  way,  and,  as 
these  can  be  easily  detected  by  a  practiced  eye,  it 
follows  that  the  accident  that  they  give  rise  to  might 
be  prevented  by  proper  caution. 

Running  off  at  Switches 

Misplaced  switches  have  been  the  cause  of  more 
accidents  than  anything  else';  and  several  years  ago 
these  accidents  were  so  frequent  that  timid  persons, 
while  on  a  train,  were  in  constant  fear  of  becoming 
victims  of  some  frightful  catastrophe.  Switches  and 
switch-tenders  are  improving  in  regard  to  safety,  but 
serious  accidents,  with  which  they  are  connected,  are 
still  frequent.  There  is  a  kind  of  switch,  known  as 
Tyler's  Safety  Switch,*  much  used  on  many  New 
England  roads,  that  seems  to  be  very  efficient,  and 
may  be  regarded  as  sure  and  safe  at  all  times.  This 
switch  was  patented,  but,  as  the  patent  has  expired, 
any  railroad  company  that  wishes  to  use  it  can  do  so 
without  fear  of  prosecution.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  companies  who  have  used  this  switch  have  saved 
thousands  of  dollars  by  it,  and  it  is  singular  that  it  has 
not  been  more  generally  adopted.  There  are  other 
switches  that  seem  to  be  all  that  could  well  be  desired 

*Descrlbed  and  illustrated  on  p.  61,  Vol.  III.  RAILROAD  GAZETTE. 


BRIDGE    SIGNALS.  131 

to  ensure  safety,  but  neither  have  they  come  into  ex- 
tensive use ;  possibly  because  the  inventors  are  poor, 
and  want  a  trifle  for  their  patents.  Running  off  at 
switches  may  in  most  cases  be  avoided  by  the  exercise 
of  ordinary  care  on  the  part  of  switchmen  and  engi- 
neers, and  any  accident  of  this  kind  may  generally  be 
charged  to  carelessness. 

The  list  of  railroad  accidents  is  a  long  one,  and, 
although  a  great  many  on  the  list  are  not  of  a  serious 
nature,  yet  it  is  impossible  for  even  a  slight  accident 
to  occur  without  more  or  less  expense  to  the  company  ; 
and  many  times  those  slight  accidents  are  accompanied 
with  the  loss  of  life.  Some  of  the  most  lamentable 
that  ever  happened  in  this  country  have  taken  place 
at  drawbridges,  owing  to  the  neglect  of  the  bridge- 
tender  to  change  the  signal  when  the  draw  was  open. 
These  disasters  were  so  frequent  a  few  years  ago,  and 
their  results  of  so  ruinous  a  character,  that  most  of 
the  companies  operating  roads  where  drawbridges  are 
used  have  been  driven  to  adopt  signals  specially  for 
their  prevention.  There  are  signals  so  connected  with 
the  machinery  of  the  draw  that  there  can  be  no  mis- 
take as  to  whether  it  is  open  or  not,  and  no  running 
off  at  drawbridges  is  therefore  likely  to  occur  in  future, 
where  such  preventive  means  exist,  except  as  the  re- 
sult of  derangement  of  the  signal  apparatus  and  neg- 
lect to  put  it  in  repair. 


132  FALSE    ECONOMY. 

In  explaining  the  causes  of  railroad  accidents,  per- 
haps the  most  comprehensive  cause  should  not  be  over- 
looked, namely  —  the  too  great  desire  on  the  part  of 
stockholders  and  managers  to  save  money.  This  is 
the  prime  source  from  which  most  of  the  causes  of  rail- 
road accidents  arise.  And  the  way  to  remove  them 
is  to  be  found  in  a  more  liberal  supply  of  necessary 
material,  and  in  securing,  even  at  some  increase  of 
cost,  a  greater  efficiency  on  the  part  of  employes. 

There  is  no  surer  way  to  prevent  accidents  than  to 
be  always  on  the  look-out  for  them,  not  forgetting  that 
they  almost  always  come  from  a  direction  where  they 
are  least  expected.  The  opinion  prevails  with  many 
that  railroad  traveling  is  more  dangerous  than  any 
other  mode,  and  yet  reliable  figures  show  that  the  per- 
centage of  travelers  on  railroads  who  are  maimed  or 
killed  on  their  journey  is  far  less  than  that  of  persons 
by  the  old-fashioned  public  coaches  and  private  con- 
veyances. It  would  be  folly,  of  course,  to  rest  con- 
tent with  such  a  comparison,  and  sit  down  compla- 
cently under  removable  evils.  Accidents  on  railroads 
are  yet  far  too  numerous,  and  it  is  hoped  that  what  has 
been  said  will  help  to  draw  attention  to  their  causes 
and  the  remedies.  The  reformer's  voice  will  only  be 
effectually  silenced  when  railroad  men  learn  to  work  on 
the  maxim — "Eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of- — 
SAFETY." 


APPENDIX. 


Elevation  of  the  Outer  Rail  on  Curves. 

THE  proper  elevation  of  the  outer  rail  on  curves  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  ;  yet  on  few  roads  in  this  country  is 
this  properly  attended  to.  The  less  the  radius  of  curva- 
ture and  the  greater  the  speed,  the  greater  should  be  the 
elevation  of  the  outer  rail.  The  annexed  table  is  accord- 
ing to  this  theory  : 


Radius  of 

Elevation  of  the  Oute 
in  miles 

r  Rail  in  Inches; 
per  hour  being 

the  velocity 

in  feet  being 

10. 

20. 

30. 

500  

0.57 

2.83 

6.56 

1,000  

0.29 

1.43 

3.30 

2,000  

0.15 

0.71 

1.65 

3,000  

0.10 

0.47 

1.10 

4,000  

0.07 

0.36 

0.83 

5,000  

0.0(5 

0.28 

0.66 

While  these  figures  are  theoretically  correct,  it  would 
be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  adhere  to  them  in  prac- 
tice. While  some  trains  would  run  at  a  speed  of  10  miles 
an  hour,  others  would  be  run  at  a  velocity  of  30  or  40 
miles  per  hour.  By  reference  to  the  table  it  will  be  seen 


134  APPENDIX ELEVATION  OF  RAIL  ON  CURVES. 


that  on  a  curve  of  a  radius  of  500  feet  the  difference  of 
elevation  between  a  speed  of  10  miles  and  30  miles  per 
hour  is  six  inches,  or  very  nearly.  The  traffic  on  most 
roads  in  this  country  is  not  sufficiently  uniform  in  its  char- 
acter to  admit  of  elevation  on  curves  by  this  rule.  In  the 
New  England  States,  years  ago,  the  rule  was  to  elevate 
one  inch  for  every  degree  of  curvature,  and  this  was  con- 
sidered as  nearly  correct  as  any  rule  for  from  one  up  to  six 
degrees  of  curvature,  on  roads  in  mountainous  regions, 
where  the  speed  of  trains  varies  from  the  snail's  pace  to 
60  miles  an  hour.  There  are  a  few  roads  in  this  country 
on  which  the  traffic  and  speed  of  trains  is  so  nearly  uni- 
form that  rails  elevated  by  the  rule  in  the  foregoing  table 
will  be  very  nearly  correct.  But  for  roads  on  which  the 
traffic  is  of  a  general  character,  the  following  will  be  found 
in  practice  to  work  well : 


Decree. 

Radius  in 
feet. 

Elevation  in 
inches. 

Degree. 

HadiuB  in 
feet. 

Elevation 
in  inches. 

30' 

11460 

Vz 

5° 

1146 

3% 

1° 

5730 

1 

5°  30'' 

1042 

4 

1°  30' 

3820 

1/4 

6° 

boo 

4/1$ 

2° 

2865 

\i£ 

6°  30' 

882 

42^ 

2°  30' 

2292 

2 

70 

819 

3° 

1910 

2M 

7°  30' 

764 

3°  30' 

1637 

2^? 

8° 

717 

6 

4° 

1433 

3 

8°  30' 

675 

^/4 

4°  30' 

1274 

3% 

9° 

637 

7 

The  above  degree  of  elevation  has  proved  satisfactory 
on  some  of  the  best  roads  in  the  country,  which  do  both 
a  heavy  freight  and  a  fast  passenger  business,  with  safety. 

A  responsible  road-master  will  notice  curves  and  keep 
the  wear  equal  on  the  outer  and  inner  rails. 


APPENDIX DEGREE  OF  CURVES. 


135 


Degree  of  Curves. 

It  may  be  desirable  for  a  track-man  to  find  the  degree 
or  radius  of  a  curve.  Stretch  taut  a  fifty-feet  tape-line  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  rail,  and  measure  the  perpendicular  dis- 
tance (which  is  the  "middle  ordinate")  from  the  center  of 
the  tape-line  to  the  inner  edge  of  the  rail.  The  radius  and 
degree  of  the  curve  corresponding  to  this  middle  ordinate 
may  then  be  found  in  the  following  table: 


Degree. 

Radius  in 
feet. 

Middle  Or- 
dinate in 
inches.     , 

Degree. 

Radius  in 
feet. 

Middle  Ordi- 
nate  in 
inches. 

30' 

11460 

.22      i 

11° 

522 

7.20 

1° 

5730 

.66     i 

12° 

478 

7.87 

2865 

1.32 

13° 

442 

8.51 

4,3° 

1910  ' 

1.97 

14° 

410 

9.17 

4° 

1433 

2.63 

15° 

383 

9.80 

5° 

1146 

3.28 

16° 

359 

10.49 

i  6° 

955 

3.94 

17° 

338 

11.11 

7° 

819 

457     j 

18° 

320 

11.78 

8° 

717 

5.24 

19° 

303 

12.41 

9° 

637 

5.89 

20° 

288 

13.06 

10° 

574 

6.54    i 

Railroad  curves  are  spoken  of  as  being  of  a  certain 
"  degree  of  curvature,"  or  of  a  certain  "  radius."  The 
radii  corresponding  to  the  various  degrees  ordinarily  met 
with  may  be  found  in  preceding  tables.  To  ascertain  the 
radius  corresponding  to  any  degree  :  Divide  5,730  (the 
radius  of  a  1°  curve)  by  the  degree  of  the  curve  under 
consideration.  For  example : 

Radius  of  a  5°  curve— 


136 


APPENDIX BENDING    RAILS. 


Bending  Rails. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  middle  ordinates  for  bending 
rails  to  be  laid  on  curves  of  the  given  degree  or  radius  : 

NOTE.— This  table  is  slightly  modified  in  form  from  that  pre- 
pared by  Mr.  John  C.  Trautwine  for  his  "  Civil  Engineers'  Pocket 
Book." 


LENGTHS  OF  RAILS. 


.0361  .024 
.0721  .060 
.120  .006 

.132 
.216  .168 
.264'  .2(4 

.240 
;  .276 

.312 

.348 

.468  384 
.504  i  .408 
.552  -444 


5-.>l'.7J!2!592  21256  i.'956;l!668 


2.352  2.052  1.776  1.500  1.272  1.044) 
1»404 1.162 


478.3  2.832  2.472  2.148  1.812:1.536  1.260J1.020 


441.7;  3.048  2.664  2  304  l.!»:,i;  U'r.c  1  Mr,i;  1.104  .900 
4H».3':3.300  2.86H  2.484  2.100  1.776,1.464  1  188  .960 
383.11  3.540  3.084  2.676  2.250  1.908  1.572  1  272  1.020 
359.3J  3.756  3.276  2.S32  2.400  2.040  i  1.668  '1.356  1.092 
338.3  3.996  3.480  3.024  2.551.  2  100  1.77(5  1.440  1.152 
319.6i'4.212  3.672:3.18o  2.700  2.280  1.872  1.524  1.224 
.9  4.452  3.888i3-360  2.856  2.412  1.980  1.608^.296 


302.       .          .-          .          .          .          ..          .        . 

287.9:'4.704  4.092  3.552  3.0)0  2.r,44  2.0*8  1.6921.368  1.044  .792 


.684'. 504 
.732  .540 

.780  .588 
.840:.G24 

.sss  .r,i;n 


.984  .732 


APPENDIX RAILS    AND    CROSS-TIES. 


137 


Rails. 

In  one  mile  there  are  5,280  feet,  or  1,760  yards.  To  lay 
one  mile  of  track  requires  : 

704  Fifteen-feet  Rails,' 

660  Sixteen-feet  Rails, 

587  Eighteen-feet  Rails, 

528  Twenty-feet  Rails, 

503  Tvventy-one-feet  Rails 

377  Twenty-eight-feet  Rails, 

352  Thirty-feet  Rails. 

Rails  weigh  about  ten  pounds  per  yard  for  each  square 
inch  of  sectional  area.  For  example  :  The  cross-section 
of  a  56  Ib.  rail  is  5  6-10  square  inches. 


Sectional  Area  in 
square  inches. 

Weight  per  Yard 
in  pounds. 

Tons  per  Mile,  (2,0  ;n 

Tons  per   Mile, 
(2,240  Its.) 

4               |            40 

70.4 

62.85 

6 

50 

88. 

78.57 

5  6-10                  56 

98.5 

88.00 

6                          60 

105.6 

94.28 

7 

70 

123.2 

110.00 

8 

80 

140.8 

125.71 

9 

90 

158.4 

141.42 

10 

100 

176. 

157.14 

For  any  weight  of  rail ;  Multiply  the  weight,  in  pounds 
per  yard,  by  eleven  (11)  and  divide  the  result  by  seven  (7). 
The  answer  will  be  the  number  of  "  long  "  tons  (2,240  Ibs.) 
per  mile. 

Cross-Ties. 

The  number  of  cross-ties  per  mile,  when  they  are  placed 
2  feet  apart  from  center  to  center,  is  2,641 ;  at  2)^  feet  apart, 
2,348;  at  2^  feet,  2,113;  at  2%  feet,  1,921 ;  and  at  3  feet 
apart,  1,761. 


138  APPENDIX TABLES. 

Inches  Expressed  in  Decimals  of  a  Foot. 


Inches. 

Foot.      Inches. 

Foot. 

1            ... 

.0833 

7       -        -        * 

.5833 

2 

.1667 

8       - 

.6667 

3 

.2500 

9       -        -        - 

.7500 

4        ... 

.3333 

10       -        - 

.8333 

5 

.4166 

11       ... 

.9166 

6 

.5000 

12       - 

1.0000 

Fractions  of 

Inch   Decimally  Expressed. 

1-16  - 

.0625 

9-16  - 

.5625 

1-8     -        -        - 

.1250 

5-8     - 

.6250 

3-16  - 

.1875 

11-16  - 

.6875 

1-4     - 

.2500 

3-4     - 

.7500 

5-16   - 

.3125 

13-16  - 

.8125 

3-8     - 

.3750 

7-8     - 

.8750 

7-16  - 

.4375 

15-16   - 

.9375 

1-2     - 

.5000 

1       ... 

1.0000 

INDEX. 


ACCIDENTS 120 

What  accidents  are  unavoidable 122 

On  preventing  accidents 128 

Accidents  caused  by  defective  wheels,  axles,  rails 

and  switches 128 

What  results  from  false  economy 132 

BALLASTING       51 

Waste  of  gravel 51 

Saving  property  before  ballasting 53 

What  is  good  ballast 53 

Preparation  of  the  track 54 

Tamping  and  dressing  off  the  track 54 

What  to  do  when  material  is  scarce 58 

True  grade  and  lack  of  stability 59 

Repairing 65 

BRIDGES — Laying  ties  upon 20 

Spiking  on  bridges 37 

The  care  of  bridges 72 

They  should  be  planked  for  foot  passengers      .     .     73 

Shimming  under  the  ties 84 

The  prevention  of  fires 116 

Bridge  signals 131 

CATTLE- GUARDS— Often  mere  traps 39 

Their  proper  construction 40 

Laying  iron  upon 40 


140 


PAGE. 

CLAW-BAES 76 

The  "bulls-foot" 76 

The  use  of  claw-bars 76 

COLLISIONS — Unavoidable 123 

Carelessness  and  various  causes 125 

Their  prevention 128 

CREEPING  TRACK 29 

An  invention  wanted  to  prevent  it 30 

CULVERTS 37 

Laying  iron  on 40 

Keeping  them  clear 68 

Shimming  under  the  ties 83 

CURVES — Curving  iron 23 

Laying  iron  on 24 

Curving  iron  among  frogs 46 

Elevation  at  curves 60,  133 

EMBANKMENTS — Waste  of  ballast  on 51 

Washing  of f 112 

EXPANSION  OF  IRON 25 

Danger  from  "  plug  chairs  " 29 

FENCES— The  preservation  of 118 

FIRBS — Danger  from  waste 116 

Danger  on  bridges 117 

FLANGE-WATS 104 

An  invention  wanted  to  keep  them  clear  of  snow 
and  ice 105 

FRESHETS — Care  of  road-bed  in 113 

FROGS — Location  of "42 

Curving  iron  among 46 


INDEX.  141 

PAGE. 

FROST — Lining  track  in  frosty  localities 67 

The  action  of 85 

GAUGE — Spiking  the  gauge  side 33 

Gauge  on  curves 34 

Gauge  concussion 35 

Preserving  true  gauge 72 

Shifting  iron 98 

GRAVEL— Waste  of 51 

GUARD-RAILS 47 

Placing — Measuring  distances  by  the  hammer  .     .    48 
Proper  rule  for  placing 48 

HAND-CAR  PRACTICE 116 

HOME  AND  FOREIGN  ROADS — A  few  words  on     .     .    50 

JOINT-TIES 65 

Measuring  off  for 18 


KINKS  "  IN  RAILS 


LAYING  IRON 23 

On  curves .     .  24 

Laying  repaired  iron 98 

LAYING  TIES,  TRESTLE  WORK,  ETC 20 

LINING  TRACK 66 

MEASURING  OFF  FOR  JOINT-TIES 18 

OSCILLATION  OF  CARRIAGES 34 

Coned  wheels  and  true  gauge 34 

PLANKS  AT  ROAD  CROSSINGS 85 


142 


passengers 73 

PLUG  CHAIRS 29 

RAILS— Laying 23 

On  Curves .24 

Replacing  repaired  rails 27 

Spiking  rails 31 

Inner  rails  on  curves — "  Running  ahead  "...     24 

Curving 23 

Curving  and  placing  guard-rails 47 

"  Kinks  "  in  rails 71 

Guard-rails .48 

Shifting  rails 98 

Uncurved  /iron  for  curves 99 

Defective  rails 99 

RAIL-PLATES— Waste  of 38 

RAISING  TRACK  FOR  BALLASTING 64 

REPAIRED  IRON — Care  in  replacing 99 

Repaired  curved  iron 99 

ROAD-MASTERS 106 

The  needed  qualifications 107 

Road   masters  require  a  practical  knowledge   of 

details  in  repairs 107 

Duties — Care  in  instructing  section-masters — Or- 
dering supplies 108 

Ambition,  inefficiency  and  "  tinkering  "       ...  109 
Road-masters  should  read 110 

SAGS 59 

SIGNALS  AT  DRAW-BRIDGES 131 

SECTION-MASTERS .62 

Cheap  section-masters 63 

Duties  of  a  section-master 64,  110 


143 


SHIMS— Between  rails 27 

Shimming  the  track 78 

Good  and  bad  shims 79 

When  shims  should  be  used 80 

When  shims  should  be  removed 81 

Machine  and  hand-made  shims 82 

Shimming  under  ties 84 

SNOW  AND  ICE 101 

Economy  in  keeping  the  track  clean 104 

Apparatus  for  clearing  flange-ways 105 

SNOW  PLOWS 101 

No  standard  are  in  use 103 

The  jealousy  of  master  mechanics  a  hindrance  to 
their  improvement 103 

SPIKES— Waste  of 31 

Careless  driving 32. 

The  right  method  of  spiking 33 

Preserving  the  gauge  while  spiking 33 

Spiking  on  bridges,  culverts,  etc 37 

SPIKE-DRAWING 75 

On  Claw-Bars  and  the  way  to  use  them  ....     76 
Drawing  spikes  in  winter 77 

STEP  CHAIRS 96 

SUPERINTENDENTS — A  word  to 106 

The  choice  of  road  and  section-masters   .     .     .     .107 

SURFACE  DITCHES 115 

SUSPENSION  JOINTS 29 

SWITCHES 87 

Adjusting  the  throw. 87 

Bent  switch-rods 87 

Connecting-rods 88 

Tyler's  safety  switch 130 


144 


TABLES. 

Locating  Frogs 43 

Elevation  of  the  Outer  Rail  on  Curves   .     .     .     .133 

Degree  of  Curves 135 

Bending  Rails 136 

Number  of  Rails  per  Mile,  Weight,  Etc.     .     .     .137 

Cross-Ties 138 

-    Inches  Expressed  in  Decimals  of  a  Foot    .     .     .  138 

Fractions  of  an  Inch  Decimally  Expressed  .     .     .  138 

TAMPING 54 

TIES— Uniformity  in 12 

The  action  of  frost  and  water  under  ties  ....  13 

Laying  ties  at  ri^ht  angles  to  the  rails     ....  14 

Side-ties 14 

"  Sighting  in  Ties  "  • 15 

Measuring  off  for  joint-ties 18 

Laying  ties  on  bridges,  etc .  20 _, 

Joint-ties 21 

Selection  of  ties 21 

TRACK  REPAIRS 62 

Oldfogyism 62 

Work  on  a  new  road— Surfacing — Tamping  joint- 
ties — Cocked  joints 64 

Lining  track 66 

Clearing  out  ditches  and  culverts 68 

"  Kinks  "  in  rails 71 

Repairing  bridges,  trestle-work,  etc 72 

TURN-OUTS 42 

Skill  and  judgment  required  in  laying  turn-outs  .  42 
.     Double  turn-outs,  one  from  each  side  of  the  main 

track 43 

Double  turn-outs  from  the  same  side 45 

WHEELS — Cracked  wheels  as  a  cause  of  accidents     .  128 

WOOD-PILES — The  action   of  frost   in   overturning 

them  upon  the  track 86 


An  Illustrated  Weekly  Journal 

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